Pulmonary metastases
Updates to Article Attributes
Pulmonary metastases are common and the result of metastatic spread to the lungs from a variety of tumours and can spread via blood or lymphatics.
This article is about with haematogenous pulmonary metastases with lymphangitis carcinomatosis discussed separately.
Epidemiology
The epidemiology will match that of the underlying malignancy (see below), but as malignancies increase in incidence with increasing age, so does the presence of pulmonary metastases.
Clinical presentation
Pulmonary metastases are usually asymptomatic, with constitutional symptoms relating to disseminated metastatic disease and those attributable to the primary tumour dominating 5. Haemoptysis and pneumothorax are sometimes the presenting symptom.
Pathology
Tumour cells reach the lungs via the pulmonary circulation, where they lodge in small distal vessels.
The most common primaries to result in pulmonary metastases include 1,3:
- breast carcinoma
- colorectal carcinoma
- renal cell carcinoma
- uterine leiomyosarcoma
- head and neck squamous cell carcinoma
Alternatively, primaries which most frequently metastasise to lungs (although in themselves much less common tumours) include 1,3:
Radiographic features
Pulmonary metastases typically appear as peripheral, rounded nodules of variable size, scattered throughout both lungs 1. Atypical features include consolidation, cavitation, calcification, haemorrhage and secondary pneumothorax.
Plain film
Plain films are insensitive, although frequently able to make the diagnosis, as often pulmonary metastases are large and numerous.
CT
CT is excellent at visualising pulmonary nodules. Typically metastases appear of soft tissue attenuation, well circumscribed rounded lesions, more often in the periphery of the lung. They are usually of variable size, a feature which is of some use in distinguishing them from a granuloma 3.
A prominent pulmonary vessel has frequently been noted heading into a metastasis. This has been termed the feeding vessel sign 4. It is unclear whether this is a true finding or the result of older scanners with thicker slices resulting in volume averaging 4. However, a number of atypical features are commonly encountered.
Some tumours have a predilection for innumerable small metastases (miliary pattern):
- malignant melanoma
- osteosarcoma
- renal cell carcinoma
- thyroid carcinoma
- trophoblastic disease 3
Conversely, a pulmonary metastasis may be single. This is most frequently seen in colorectal carcinoma. Other primaries which often present with solitary metastases include 3:
- malignant melanoma
- skeletal sarcoma
- adenocarcinomas in general
Adenocarcinoma metastases may rather than displace or destroy adjacent lung parenchyma, cells grow in a lepidic fashion (spread along aleveolar walls) resulting in pneumonia-like consolidation. Air bronchograms may also be visible 1.
Cavitation is present in ~4% of cases 1. The most common primary is squamous cell carcinoma, most often from the head and neck or from the lung. Other primaries include adenocarcinomas, and sarcomas 1,3.
Calcification, although uncommon and more frequently a feature of benign aetiology (e.g. granuloma or hamartoma) is also seen with metastases, particularly those from papillary thyroid carcinoma and adenocarcinomas. Treated metastases, osteosarcomas and chondrosarcomas may also contain calcific densities 1.
A halo of ground-glass opacity representing haemorrhage can be seen, particularly surrounding haemorrhagic pulmonary metastases, such as choriocarcinoma and angiosarcoma 1.
MRI
Although not used routinely, MRI may be as sensitive in the detection of pulmonary metastases as CT 2,4.
Treatment and prognosis
In general presence of pulmonary metastases is an ominous finding, indicating poor prognosis. The specific prognosis will however depend on the primary tumour.
Complications
Tumours with prominent necrosis located near a pleural surface may result in a pneumothorax. Osteosarcoma is classically described as the pulmonary metastasis that results in pneumothorax. Another cause of pneumothoraces include cystic or cavitatory pulmonary metastases.
Differential diagnosis
The differential depends on the number of nodules/masses and their imaging characteristics.
- differential of multiple pulmonary nodules
- differential of a single pulmonary nodule
- differential of miliary pulmonary nodules
- differential of a cavitating lung mass
- differential of a pulmonary mass with calcification
- differential of a pulmonary mass with surrounding ground-glass halo
See also
-<p><strong>Pulmonary metastases</strong> are common and the result of metastatic spread to the lungs from a variety of tumours and can spread via blood or lymphatics. </p><p>This article is about with haematogenous pulmonary metastases with <a href="/articles/lymphangitic-carcinomatosis">lymphangitis carcinomatosis</a> discussed separately.</p><h4>Epidemiology</h4><p>The epidemiology will match that of the underlying malignancy (see below), but as malignancies increase in incidence with increasing age, so does the presence of pulmonary metastases. </p><h4>Clinical presentation</h4><p>Pulmonary metastases are usually asymptomatic, with constitutional symptoms relating to disseminated metastatic disease and those attributable to the primary tumour dominating <sup>5</sup>. <a href="/articles/haemoptysis-1">Haemoptysis</a> and <a title="Pneumothorax" href="/articles/pneumothorax">pneumothorax</a> are sometimes the presenting symptom.</p><h4>Pathology</h4><p>Tumour cells reach the lungs via the pulmonary circulation, where they lodge in small distal vessels. </p><p>The most common primaries to result in pulmonary metastases include <sup>1,3</sup>: </p><ul>- +<p><strong>Pulmonary metastases</strong> are common and the result of metastatic spread to the lungs from a variety of tumours and can spread via blood or lymphatics. </p><p>This article is about with haematogenous pulmonary metastases with <a href="/articles/lymphangitic-carcinomatosis">lymphangitis carcinomatosis</a> discussed separately.</p><h4>Epidemiology</h4><p>The epidemiology will match that of the underlying malignancy (see below), but as malignancies increase in incidence with increasing age, so does the presence of pulmonary metastases. </p><h4>Clinical presentation</h4><p>Pulmonary metastases are usually asymptomatic, with constitutional symptoms relating to disseminated metastatic disease and those attributable to the primary tumour dominating <sup>5</sup>. <a href="/articles/haemoptysis-1">Haemoptysis</a> and <a href="/articles/pneumothorax">pneumothorax</a> are sometimes the presenting symptom.</p><h4>Pathology</h4><p>Tumour cells reach the lungs via the pulmonary circulation, where they lodge in small distal vessels. </p><p>The most common primaries to result in pulmonary metastases include <sup>1,3</sup>: </p><ul>
-<li><a href="/articles/thyroid-carcinoma">thyroid carcinoma</a></li>-</ul><h4>Radiographic features</h4><p>Pulmonary metastases typically appear as peripheral, rounded nodules of variable size, scattered throughout both lungs <sup>1</sup>. Atypical features include <a title="Lung consolidation" href="/articles/air-space-opacification-1">consolidation</a>, cavitation, calcification, haemorrhage and secondary pneumothorax.</p><h5>Plain film</h5><p>Plain films are insensitive, although frequently able to make the diagnosis, as often pulmonary metastases are large and numerous.</p><h5>CT</h5><p>CT is excellent at visualising pulmonary nodules. Typically metastases appear of soft tissue attenuation, well circumscribed rounded lesions, more often in the periphery of the lung. They are usually of variable size, a feature which is of some use in distinguishing them from a granuloma <sup>3</sup>.</p><p>A prominent pulmonary vessel has frequently been noted heading into a metastasis. This has been termed the <a href="/articles/feeding-vessel-sign">feeding vessel sign</a> <sup>4</sup>. It is unclear whether this is a true finding or the result of older scanners with thicker slices resulting in volume averaging <sup>4</sup>. However, a number of atypical features are commonly encountered.</p><p>Some tumours have a predilection for innumerable small metastases (<a title="Miliary nodules" href="/articles/miliary-opacities">miliary pattern</a>):</p><ul>- +<li><a title="Thyroid carcinoma" href="/articles/thyroid-malignancies">thyroid carcinoma</a></li>
- +</ul><h4>Radiographic features</h4><p>Pulmonary metastases typically appear as peripheral, rounded nodules of variable size, scattered throughout both lungs <sup>1</sup>. Atypical features include <a href="/articles/air-space-opacification-1">consolidation</a>, cavitation, calcification, haemorrhage and secondary pneumothorax.</p><h5>Plain film</h5><p>Plain films are insensitive, although frequently able to make the diagnosis, as often pulmonary metastases are large and numerous.</p><h5>CT</h5><p>CT is excellent at visualising pulmonary nodules. Typically metastases appear of soft tissue attenuation, well circumscribed rounded lesions, more often in the periphery of the lung. They are usually of variable size, a feature which is of some use in distinguishing them from a granuloma <sup>3</sup>.</p><p>A prominent pulmonary vessel has frequently been noted heading into a metastasis. This has been termed the <a href="/articles/feeding-vessel-sign">feeding vessel sign</a> <sup>4</sup>. It is unclear whether this is a true finding or the result of older scanners with thicker slices resulting in volume averaging <sup>4</sup>. However, a number of atypical features are commonly encountered.</p><p>Some tumours have a predilection for innumerable small metastases (<a href="/articles/miliary-opacities">miliary pattern</a>):</p><ul>
-<li><a href="/articles/assessment-of-thyroid-lesions">thyroid carcinoma</a></li>- +<li><a href="/articles/assessment-of-thyroid-lesions-general">thyroid carcinoma</a></li>
-</ul><p>Adenocarcinoma metastases may rather than displace or destroy adjacent lung parenchyma, cells grow in a lepidic fashion (spread along aleveolar walls) resulting in pneumonia-like consolidation. <a href="/articles/air-bronchogram">Air bronchograms</a> may also be visible <sup>1</sup>.</p><p>Cavitation is present in ~4% of cases <sup>1</sup>. The most common primary is squamous cell carcinoma, most often from the head and neck or from the lung. Other primaries include adenocarcinomas, and sarcomas <sup>1,3</sup>.</p><p>Calcification, although uncommon and more frequently a feature of benign aetiology (e.g. granuloma or hamartoma) is also seen with metastases, particularly those from papillary thyroid carcinoma and adenocarcinomas. Treated metastases, osteosarcomas and chondrosarcomas may also contain calcific densities <sup>1</sup>.</p><p>A <a href="/articles/halo-sign-chest-2">halo</a> of <a href="/articles/ground-glass-opacity">ground-glass opacity</a> representing haemorrhage can be seen, particularly surrounding <a href="/articles/haemorrhagic-pulmonary-metastases">haemorrhagic pulmonary metastases</a>, such as <a href="/articles/choriocarcinoma">choriocarcinoma</a> and <a href="/articles/angiosarcoma">angiosarcoma</a><sup> 1</sup>.</p><h5>MRI</h5><p>Although not used routinely, MRI may be as sensitive in the detection of pulmonary metastases as CT<sup> 2,4</sup>.</p><h4>Treatment and prognosis</h4><p>In general presence of pulmonary metastases is an ominous finding, indicating poor prognosis. The specific prognosis will however depend on the primary tumour.</p><h5>Complications</h5><p>Tumours with prominent necrosis located near a pleural surface may result in a pneumothorax. <a href="/articles/osteosarcoma">Osteosarcoma</a> is classically described as the pulmonary metastasis that results in pneumothorax. Another cause of pneumothoraces include cystic or cavitatory pulmonary metastases.</p><h4>Differential diagnosis</h4><p>The differential depends on the number of nodules/masses and their imaging characteristics.</p><ul>- +</ul><p>Adenocarcinoma metastases may rather than displace or destroy adjacent lung parenchyma, cells grow in a lepidic fashion (spread along aleveolar walls) resulting in pneumonia-like consolidation. <a href="/articles/air-bronchogram">Air bronchograms</a> may also be visible <sup>1</sup>.</p><p>Cavitation is present in ~4% of cases <sup>1</sup>. The most common primary is squamous cell carcinoma, most often from the head and neck or from the lung. Other primaries include adenocarcinomas, and sarcomas <sup>1,3</sup>.</p><p>Calcification, although uncommon and more frequently a feature of benign aetiology (e.g. granuloma or hamartoma) is also seen with metastases, particularly those from papillary thyroid carcinoma and adenocarcinomas. Treated metastases, osteosarcomas and chondrosarcomas may also contain calcific densities <sup>1</sup>.</p><p>A <a href="/articles/halo-sign-chest-3">halo</a> of <a href="/articles/ground-glass-opacification">ground-glass opacity</a> representing haemorrhage can be seen, particularly surrounding <a href="/articles/haemorrhagic-pulmonary-metastases">haemorrhagic pulmonary metastases</a>, such as <a href="/articles/choriocarcinoma">choriocarcinoma</a> and <a href="/articles/angiosarcoma">angiosarcoma</a><sup> 1</sup>.</p><h5>MRI</h5><p>Although not used routinely, MRI may be as sensitive in the detection of pulmonary metastases as CT<sup> 2,4</sup>.</p><h4>Treatment and prognosis</h4><p>In general presence of pulmonary metastases is an ominous finding, indicating poor prognosis. The specific prognosis will however depend on the primary tumour.</p><h5>Complications</h5><p>Tumours with prominent necrosis located near a pleural surface may result in a pneumothorax. <a href="/articles/osteosarcoma">Osteosarcoma</a> is classically described as the pulmonary metastasis that results in pneumothorax. Another cause of pneumothoraces include cystic or cavitatory pulmonary metastases.</p><h4>Differential diagnosis</h4><p>The differential depends on the number of nodules/masses and their imaging characteristics.</p><ul>
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