Rhombencephalitis

Changed by Rohit Sharma, 24 Jan 2018

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Rhombencephalitis (RE) corresponds to inflammatory diseases affecting the hindbrain (brainstem and cerebellum) and has a wide variety of aetiologies including infections, autoimmune diseases, and paraneoplastic syndromes with Listeria Listeria monocytogenes being cited as the most common cause. RE carries significant morbidity and mortality. 

For a specific discussion, please refer to articles: 

Terminology

It is important to remember that both terms "rhombencephalitis" and "brainstem encephalitis”, despite being used as interchangeable terms, are anatomically different, as the former includes the cerebellum as well as the brainstem

Clinical presentation

Symptoms can vary due to the different causes of RE. When caused by virus it usually presents with headache, vomiting, fever, and ill-defined neurologic symptoms (prodromal stage lasting for about one to two two weeks). After that patients develop a spectrum spectrum of brainstem symptomatology that could show cranial cranial nerve palsies (it occurs in ~75% of all cases), cerebellar and long-tract motor and sensory deficits.

Pathology

  • infectious

    • viral

      • enterovirus 71: is probably the second most common of infectious RE
      • herpes simplex virus (HSV): is the third most common
        • 80% are caused by HSV1 
        • 20% are caused by HSV2
        • Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)
      • human herpesvirus 6 (HHV6) 
      • Flaviviruses (e.g. West Nile virus and Japanese encephalitis virus)
    • bacterial
      • Listeria monocytogenes: the most common cause of infectious RE
      • Mycobacterium tuberculosis
      • RickettsiaBorrelia burgdoferiSalmonela typhi,Legionella bozemanii andMycoplasma pneumoniae are agents that rarely cause encephalitis, but can involve the brainstem. 
  • autoimmune
  • paraneoplastic syndromes: associated with antibodies and, in the majority of cases, having small small cell lung cancer as the underlying cause
  • malignancy
    • lymphoma (rare)

Radiographic features

Beam-hardening artifacts limit the visualization of the brainstem on CT images and MRI is the imaging modality of choice for the assessment of patients with suspected pathology in that anatomic location. Protocol should include contrast. 

MRI

When caused by infectious agents, usually RE is presented as:

  • T1: hypo-isointense lesion
  • T2/FLAIR: hyperintense
  • DWI: hyperintense
  • ADC: hypointense
  • spectroscopy: allows differentiation between abscess from tumor
  • T1 C+:     
    • linear cranial nerve enhancement
    • ring enhancement (abscess)
    • heterogeneous if extensive inflammation

Treatment and prognosis

RE require early diagnosis and treatment to avoid neurological sequelae. The morality rate is reported between 10-15% 3

History and etymology

It was first reported byEdwin Bickerstaff Bickerstaff andPhilip Cloake in 19512

The term is derived from the Greek: "rhombos" (lozenge-shaped figure) and"enkephalos" (brain). 

Differential diagnosis

  • -<p><strong>Rhombencephalitis</strong> (<strong>RE</strong>) corresponds to inflammatory diseases affecting the hindbrain (<a href="/articles/brainstem">brainstem</a> and <a href="/articles/cerebellum">cerebellum</a>) and has a wide variety of aetiologies including infections, autoimmune diseases, and paraneoplastic syndromes with Listeria monocytogenes being cited as the most common cause. RE carries significant morbidity and mortality. </p><p>For a specific discussion, please refer to articles: </p><ul>
  • +<p><strong>Rhombencephalitis</strong> (<strong>RE</strong>) corresponds to inflammatory diseases affecting the hindbrain (<a href="/articles/brainstem">brainstem</a> and <a href="/articles/cerebellum">cerebellum</a>) and has a wide variety of aetiologies including infections, autoimmune diseases, and paraneoplastic syndromes with Listeria monocytogenes being cited as the most common cause. RE carries significant morbidity and mortality. </p><p>For a specific discussion, please refer to articles: </p><ul>
  • -<li><a href="/articles/paraneoplastic-rhombencephalitis">paraneoplastic rhombencephalitis</a></li>
  • -</ul><h4>Terminology</h4><p>It is important to remember that both terms "rhombencephalitis" and "brainstem encephalitis”, despite being used as interchangeable terms, are anatomically different, as the former includes the <a title="Cerebellum" href="/articles/cerebellum">cerebellum</a> as well as the <a title="Brainstem" href="/articles/brainstem">brainstem</a>. </p><h4>Clinical presentation</h4><p>Symptoms can vary due to the different causes of RE. When caused by virus it usually presents with headache, vomiting, fever, and ill-defined neurologic symptoms (prodromal stage lasting for about one to two weeks). After that patients develop a spectrum of brainstem symptomatology that could show cranial nerve palsies (it occurs in ~75% of all cases), cerebellar and long-tract motor and sensory deficits.</p><h4>Pathology</h4><ul>
  • +<li><a href="/articles/paraneoplastic-rhombencephalitis">paraneoplastic rhombencephalitis</a></li>
  • +</ul><h4>Terminology</h4><p>It is important to remember that both terms "rhombencephalitis" and "brainstem encephalitis”, despite being used as interchangeable terms, are anatomically different, as the former includes the <a href="/articles/cerebellum">cerebellum</a> as well as the <a href="/articles/brainstem">brainstem</a>. </p><h4>Clinical presentation</h4><p>Symptoms can vary due to the different causes of RE. When caused by virus it usually presents with headache, vomiting, fever, and ill-defined neurologic symptoms (prodromal stage lasting for about one to two weeks). After that patients develop a spectrum of brainstem symptomatology that could show cranial nerve palsies (it occurs in ~75% of all cases), cerebellar and long-tract motor and sensory deficits.</p><h4>Pathology</h4><ul>
  • -<li><em>Mycobacterium tuberculosis </em></li>
  • +<li><em>Mycobacterium tuberculosis </em></li>
  • -<em>Rickettsia</em>, <em>Borrelia burgdoferi</em>, <em>Salmonela typhi</em>,<em>Legionella bozemanii</em> and <em>Mycoplasma pneumoniae</em> are agents that rarely cause encephalitis, but can involve the brainstem. </li>
  • +<em>Rickettsia</em>, <em>Borrelia burgdoferi</em>, <em>Salmonela typhi</em>,<em>Legionella bozemanii</em> and <em>Mycoplasma pneumoniae</em> are agents that rarely cause encephalitis, but can involve the brainstem. </li>
  • -<a href="/articles/paraneoplastic-rhombencephalitis">paraneoplastic syndromes</a>: associated with antibodies and, in the majority of cases, having small cell lung cancer as the underlying cause</li>
  • +<a href="/articles/paraneoplastic-rhombencephalitis">paraneoplastic syndromes</a>: associated with antibodies and, in the majority of cases, having small cell lung cancer as the underlying cause</li>
  • -</ul><h4>Treatment and prognosis</h4><p>RE require early diagnosis and treatment to avoid neurological sequelae. The morality rate is reported between 10-15% <sup>3</sup>. </p><h4>History and etymology</h4><p>It was first reported by <strong>Edwin Bickerstaff</strong> and <strong>Philip</strong> <strong>Cloake</strong> in 1951 <sup>2</sup>. </p><p>The term is derived from the Greek: "rhombos" (lozenge-shaped figure) and "enkephalos" (brain). </p><h4>Differential diagnosis</h4><ul><li><a title="brainstem tumour" href="/articles/brainstem-tumour">brainstem tumour</a></li></ul>
  • +</ul><h4>Treatment and prognosis</h4><p>RE require early diagnosis and treatment to avoid neurological sequelae. The morality rate is reported between 10-15% <sup>3</sup>. </p><h4>History and etymology</h4><p>It was first reported by <strong>Edwin Bickerstaff</strong> and <strong>Philip</strong> <strong>Cloake</strong> in 1951 <sup>2</sup>. </p><p>The term is derived from the Greek: "rhombos" (lozenge-shaped figure) and "enkephalos" (brain). </p><h4>Differential diagnosis</h4><ul><li><a href="/articles/brainstem-tumour">brainstem tumour</a></li></ul>

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