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Abscess

Abscesses are focal confined collections of suppurative inflammatory material and can be thought of as having three components 1: a central core consisting of necrotic inflammatory cells and local tissue peripheral halo of viable neutrophils surrounded by a 'capsule' with dilated blood vessel...

Accessory ossicle of the anterior arch of the atlas

The accessory ossicle of the anterior arch of the atlas is a normal variant and is best appreciated on a lateral cervical/sagittal study. It is observed as a circular and corticated osseous density that articulates with the inferior aspect of the anterior arch of the atlas. It is not associate...

Acute spinal cord ischemia syndrome

Acute spinal cord ischemia syndrome is uncommon, but usually presents with profound neurological signs and symptoms, and the prognosis is poor. Epidemiology Acute spinal cord ischemia syndrome represents only 5-8% of acute myelopathies 4,5 and <1% of all strokes 7. The demographic of affected...

Adjacent level ossification

Adjacent level ossification is a complication of anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF) with anterior plate stabilization. It represents pathological heterotopic ossification of the soft tissues above or below the ends of the plate, contiguous with the adjacent vertebral body. It occurs ...

Adjacent segment degeneration

Adjacent segment degeneration is a common complication of spinal fusion occurring at the adjacent unfused level above or below the fused segment. It is usually encountered in the cervical spine or lumbar spine and occurs with an incidence of roughly between 2% and 4% per year 4. The underlying...

Adrenomyeloneuropathy

Adrenomyeloneuropathy is a form of X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy characterized by pronounced involvement of the spinal cord with only minor involvement of the cerebral white matter. Clinical presentation Clinical presentation depends on whether or not there is also cerebral involvement. In ...

Aggressive vertebral hemangioma

Aggressive vertebral hemangiomata are a rare form of vertebral hemangiomata where significant vertebral expansion, extra-osseous component with epidural extension, disturbance of blood flow, and occasionally compression fractures can be present causing spinal cord and/or nerve root compression 1...

Alar ligament

The alar ligaments join the lateral margins of the sloping upper posterior margin of the dens of C2 to the lateral margins of the foramen magnum (adjacent to the occipital condyles) and lie on either side of the apical ligament. They may be oblique or vertical and are thickest at the occipital a...

Alar ligament calcification

Alar ligament calcification is rare. The alar ligaments arise bilaterally from the upper portion of the odontoid process and run obliquely cephalad and laterally to insert on the medial surface of the occipital condyles. They stabilize the head during rotatory movements. Epidemiology Focal c...

Allen and Ferguson classification of subaxial cervical spine injuries

Allen and Ferguson classification is used for research purposes to classify subaxial spine injuries. It is based ofn the mechanism of injury and position of the neck during injury. This classification was proposed by Allen and Ferguson in 19823 and at the time of writing (July 2016) remains the ...

Anatomy curriculum

The anatomy curriculum is one of our curriculum articles and aims to be a collection of articles that represent the core anatomy knowledge for radiologists and imaging specialists. General anatomy Neuroanatomy Head and neck anatomy Thoracic anatomy Abdominal and pelvic anatomy Spinal anat...

Ancient schwannoma

Ancient schwannomas are long-standing, benign (WHO grade I) slow growing schwannomas with advanced degeneration. The term “ancient” has been traditionally used to describe schwannomas showing degenerative changes and diffuse hypocellular areas 1-3. Pathology These tumors demonstrate nuclear pl...

Anderson and D'Alonzo classification of odontoid process fracture

The Anderson and D'Alonzo classification is the most commonly used classification of fractures of the odontoid process of C2. Classification type I rare fracture of the upper part of the odontoid peg above the level of the transverse band of the cruciform ligament usually considered stable...

Andersson lesion

Andersson lesions refer to an inflammatory involvement of the intervertebral discs by spondyloarthritis. Epidemiology Rheumatic spondylodiskitis is a non-infectious condition that has been shown to occur in about 8% of patients with ankylosing spondylitis, as detected at radiography. Patholog...

Angiolipoma

Angiolipomas (also sometimes known as haemangiolipomas, vascular lipomas, and fibromyolipomas) are rare soft tissue tumors composed of mature adipocytes and vessels. They can occur essentially anywhere and can be subclassified into infiltrating and non-infiltrating variants 1. Please refer to ...

Ankylosing spondylitis

Ankylosing spondylitis (less commonly known as Bechterew disease and Marie Strümpell disease) is a seronegative spondyloarthropathy, which results in fusion (ankylosis) of the spine and sacroiliac (SI) joints, although involvement is also seen in large and small joints. Epidemiology Traditiona...

Annular fissure

Annular fissures are a degenerative deficiency of one or more layers that make up the annulus fibrosus of the intervertebral disc. Terminology Many authors prefer the term annular fissure over annular tear, as the latter seems to imply acute injury 1,2. In the setting of severe trauma with di...

Annulus fibrosus

The annulus fibrosus (plural: annuli fibrosi) surrounds the nucleus pulposus and together they form the intervertebral disc. Gross anatomy The annulus comprises 15 to 20 collagenous (type I) laminae which run obliquely from the edge of one vertebra down to the edge of the vertebra below. The d...

Annulus fibrosus calcification

Annulus fibrosus calcification is a form of intervertebral disc calcification where the peripheral annular portion (annulus fibrosus) can get calcified. This may occur in isolation or in conjunction with other sites of disc calcification. It could involve any portion of the spine. Some suggest t...

Anterior angulation of the coccyx

Anterior angulation of the coccyx may be a normal variant but poses a diagnostic challenge for those considering coccygeal trauma. Classification Four types of coccyx have been described: type I: the coccyx is curved slightly forward, with its apex pointing caudally (~70%) type II: the coccy...

Anterior atlanto-occipital membrane

The anterior atlanto-occipital membrane is a thin membrane that joins the upper border of the anterior arch of the atlas (C1) to the anterior inferior surface of the foramen magnum. It is a continuation of the anterior longitudinal ligament above the C1 level. It is immediately posterior to the ...

Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF)

Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF) is a commonly performed spinal fusion procedure for the decompression of the cervical cord due to disc protrusions and posteriorly projecting osteophytes. It is not to be confused with an ACDA (anterior cervical disc arthroplasty). Technique The ...

Anterior corticospinal tract

The anterior corticospinal tract is formed at the level of the of the medullary pyramids, where the majority (90%) of descending corticospinal tract fibers decussate to form the lateral corticospinal tract. The majority of the remaining non-decussating 10% of fibers form the much smaller anterio...

Anterior horn syndrome

Anterior horn syndrome is a fairly generic term used to refer to flaccid paralysis and areflexia due to involvement of the anterior grey matter horns of the spinal cord. Sensation is typically preserved. Causes of anterior horn syndrome include: anterior spinal artery ischemia poliomyeliti...

Anterior longitudinal ligament

The anterior longitudinal ligament (ALL) runs along the anterior surface of the vertebral bodies (firmly united to the periosteum) and intervertebral discs (attaching to the anterior annulus). It ascends from the anterosuperior portion of the sacrum superiorly to become the anterior atlantooccip...

Anterior lumbar interbody fusion (ALIF)

Anterior lumbar interbody fusion (ALIF) is a spinal fusion procedure usually performed at L5/S1 or L4/5. It is carried out either via a transabdominal or lateral retroperitoneal approach. A discectomy is performed, an interbody spacer introduced and fixed in place with screws with or without a...

Anterior sacral meningocele

Anterior sacral meningocele is a congenital defect seen in the anterior aspect of the spine. It is defined as a meningeal cyst that occurs in the presacral space secondary to agenesis of a portion of the anterior sacrum. Pathology Associations In approximately 50% of cases, associated malform...

Anterior spinal artery

The anterior spinal artery supplies the anterior portion of the spinal cord and arises from the vertebral artery in the region of the medulla oblongata. The two vertebral arteries (one of which is usually bigger than the other) anastamose in the midline to form a single anterior spinal artery at...

Anterior spinothalamic tract

The anterior spinothalamic tract, also known as the ventral spinothalamic fasciculus, is an ascending pathway located anteriorly within the spinal cord, primarily responsible for transmitting coarse touch and pressure. The lateral spinothalamic tract (discussed separately), in contrast, primar...

Anterior subluxation of the cervical spine

Anterior subluxation of the cervical spine, also known as hyperflexion sprain, is a ligamentous injury of the cervical spine. Clinical presentation Patients present with severe, focal neck pain. There may be neurological symptoms due to spinal cord injury. Pathology Anterior subluxation of t...

Anterior vertebral body beaking

Anterior vertebral body beaking occurs in a number of conditions and may emanate from the central portion or the lower third of the vertebral body. Middle third Morquio syndrome 1 (middle for Morquio) Lower third Hurler syndrome 2 achondroplasia 3 pseudoachondroplasia 4 cretinism 5 Down ...

Anterolisthesis

The term anterolisthesis refers to anterior displacement (forward slip) of a vertebral body relative to the one below. Its severity can be graded by the Meyerding classification and its etiology classified according to the Wiltse classification.

AO classification of sacral injuries

The AO classification of sacral injuries aims to simplify and universalise the process of classifying sacral injuries and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability. The AO sacral classification is broken into three subsections that follow a hierarchical structure similar to the AO cla...

AO classification of subaxial injuries

The AO classification of subaxial injuries aims to simplify and universalise the classification of subaxial cervical spine fractures and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability. Usage Although its existence is widely known among the relevant subspecialty groups, its day-to-day use ...

AO classification of upper cervical injuries

The AO classification of upper cervical injuries aims to simplify and universalise the process of classifying upper cervical injuries and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability. Usage Although in routine clinical practice, at least in many institutions, injuries will be described ...

AO spine classification of thoracolumbar injuries

The AO spine classification of thoracolumbar injuries is one of the more commonly used thoracolumbar spinal fracture classification systems and aims to simplify and universalise the process of classifying spinal injuries and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability 3. Unlike the othe...

AO Spine classification systems

The AO Spine classification systems is a group of imaging morphology-based classification system, combined with clinical factors for injury of spinal trauma. It is designed to be a simple and reproducible method of describing injury patterns. At the time of writing (Oct 2018), the four publishe...

Apical ligament

The apical ligament is a small ligament that joins the apex (tip) of the dens of C2 to the anterior margin (basion) of the foramen magnum. It is the weak, fibrous remnant of the notochord and does not contribute significantly to stability. The more posterior alar and cruciate ligaments are stro...

Arachnoid cyst

Arachnoid cysts are relatively common benign and asymptomatic lesions occurring in association with the central nervous system, both within the intracranial compartment (most common) as well as within the spinal canal. They are usually located within the subarachnoid space and contain CSF. On ...

Arachnoiditis

Arachnoiditis is a broad term encompassing inflammation of the meninges and subarachnoid space. Terminology Arachnoiditis affecting the cauda equina may be referred to as spinal/lumbar adhesive arachnoiditis. Clinical presentation Lumbar spine arachnoiditis can result in leg pain, sensory c...

Arachnoiditis ossificans

Arachnoiditis ossificans is considered a sequela of chronic arachnoiditis where there is a development of calcification-ossification of the arachnoid membrane usually of the thoracic and lumbar spines. It is an extremely rare cause of spinal canal stenosis and consequent neurological compromise....

Arcuate foramen

The arcuate foramen (foramen arcuate atlantis, ponticulus posticus or posterior ponticle, or Kimerle anomaly) is a frequently encountered normal variant of the atlas and is easily appreciated on a lateral plain film of the craniocervical junction. Epidemiology Incidence is ~8% (range 1-15%) an...

Arterial vasocorona

The arterial vasocorona is part of the spinal cord blood supply and is formed by pial anastomoses between the anterior and posterior spinal arteries on the surface of the spinal cord. It encircles the cord and supplies the peripheral lateral aspect of the spinal cord.

Artery of Adamkiewicz

The artery of Adamkiewicz, also known as the great anterior radiculomedullary artery or arteria radicularis anterior magna, is the name given to the dominant thoracolumbar segmental artery that supplies the spinal cord. Gross anatomy Origin The artery of Adamkiewicz has a variable origin but ...

ASAS sacroiliitis classification system

First published in 2009 with a revised consensus in 2016, the Assessment in SpondyloArthritis International Society (ASAS) classification system utilizes imaging features of the sacroiliac joints on MR imaging to assist in characterizing the presence of sacroiliitis. The ASAS classification is ...

Ascending lumbar vein

The ascending lumbar vein is a paired structure which forms a part of the venous drainage of the lumbar vertebral column. Summary location: near midline on the side of the vertebral column in the lumbar region origin and termination: continuation of the lateral sacral veins; joins the subcost...

Atlanto-axial articulation

The atlanto-axial articulation is a complex of three synovial joints, which join the atlas (C1) to the axis (C2). Gross anatomy Articulations paired lateral atlanto-axial joints: classified as planar-type joint between the lateral masses of C1 and C2, though somewhat more complex in shape wit...

Atlantodental interval

The atlantodental interval (ADI), as the name suggests, is the horizontal distance between the anterior arch of the atlas and the dens of the axis, used in the diagnosis of atlanto-occipital dissociation injuries and injuries of the atlas and axis. It is the distance (in mm) between the posteri...

Atlanto-occipital articulation

The atlanto-occipital articulation (also known as the C0-C1 joint/articulation) is comprised of a pair of condyloid synovial joints that connect the occipital bone (C0) to the first cervical vertebra (atlas/C1). Gross anatomy Articulations Each joint is comprised of two concave articular surf...

Atlanto-occipital assimilation

Atlanto-occipital assimilation is the fusion of the atlas (C1) to the occiput and is one of the transitional vertebrae. Epidemiology Atlanto-occipital assimilation occurs in approximately 0.5% (range 0.08-3%) of the population 2-5,. It is thought to affect males and females equally. Clinical...

Atlanto-occipital dissociation injuries

Atlanto-occipital dissociation injuries are severe and include both atlanto-occipital dislocations and atlanto-occipital subluxations. Pathology The tectorial membrane and alar ligaments provide most of the stability to the atlanto-occipital joint, and injury to these ligaments results in inst...

Atlas (C1)

The atlas (plural: atlases) is the first cervical vertebra, commonly called C1. It is an atypical cervical vertebra with unique features. It articulates with the dens of the axis and the occiput, respectively allowing rotation of the head, and flexion, extension and lateral flexion of the head. ...

Atypical cervical vertebrae

Of the cervical vertebrae, the atlas (C1), axis (C2) and vertebra prominens (C7) are considered atypical cervical vertebrae. The atlas (C1) lacks a body or spinous process. It has anterior and posterior arches with lateral masses. Its superior articular surfaces articulate with the occiput at t...

Atypical lumbar vertebrae

Of the five lumbar vertebrae, L5 is considered atypical due to its shape. The remaining lumbar vertebrae are largely typical. For a basic anatomic description of the structure a generic vertebra, see vertebrae.

Atypical thoracic vertebrae

T1 and T9 - T12 are considered atypical thoracic vertebrae. T1 bears some resemblance to low cervical vertebrae. T9 has no inferior demifacet. T10 often, but not always, shares features with T11 and T12. For a basic anatomic description of the structure a generic vertebra, see vertebrae.

Autoimmune glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP) astrocytopathy

Autoimmune glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP) astrocytopathy, or simply GFAP astrocytopathy, is a rare inflammatory central nervous system (CNS) disorder. Epidemiology Given the rarity of the condition, epidemiological data pertaining to autoimmune GFAP astrocytopathy are not well establishe...

Autonomic dysreflexia

Autonomic dysreflexia (AD) is a life-threatening condition prevalent amongst patients with high spinal cord injury (SCI) and may occur any time after injury. It is a syndrome characterized by an exaggerated reflex increase in blood pressure, usually accompanied by bradycardia in response to a st...

Axis (C2)

The axis is the second cervical vertebra, commonly called C2. It is an atypical cervical vertebra with unique features and important relations that make it easily recognisable. Its most prominent feature is the odontoid process (or dens), which is embryologically the body of the atlas (C1) 1,2. ...

Baastrup syndrome

Baastrup syndrome (also referred to as kissing spines) results from adjacent spinous processes in the lumbar spine rubbing against each other. This causes hypertrophy and sclerosis. Patients typically report focal midline pain and tenderness relieved by flexion and aggravated by extension. Epi...

Bamboo spine (ankylosing spondylitis)

Bamboo spine is a radiographic feature seen in ankylosing spondylitis that occurs as a result of vertebral body fusion by marginal syndesmophytes. It is often accompanied by fusion of the posterior vertebral elements as well. A bamboo spine typically involves the thoracolumbar and/or lumbosacr...

Basilar invagination

Basilar invagination, also called basilar impression, is a congenital or acquired craniocervical junction abnormality where the tip of the odontoid process projects above the foramen magnum. Terminology The terms basilar invagination and basilar impression are often used interchangeably becau...

Basilar invagination (mnemonic)

A mnemonic to help recall the causes of basilar invagination is: PF ROACH Mnemonic P: Paget disease of bone F: fibrous dysplasia R: rheumatoid arthritis, rickets O: osteogenesis imperfecta, osteomalacia A: achondroplasia C: Chiari I and Chiari II, cleidocranial dysostosis H: hyperparath...

Basion-axial interval

The basion-axial interval (BAI), as the name suggests, is the horizontal distance between the basion and the posterior cortex of the axis, used in the diagnosis of atlanto-occipital dissociation injuries. It is the distance (in mm) between the basion and the superior extension of the posterior ...

Basion-dens interval

The basion-dens interval (BDI), as the name suggests, is the distance between the basion and the tip of the dens, used in the diagnosis of atlanto-occipital dissociation injuries. It is the distance from the most inferior portion of the basion to the closest point of the superior aspect of the ...

Batson venous plexus

Batson venous plexus, also known as Batson veins, are a network of veins with no valves that connect deep pelvic veins draining the bladder, prostate, and rectum to the internal vertebral venous plexus 1. These veins are important because they are believed to provide a route for spread of pelvic...

Benign notochordal cell tumor

Benign notochordal cell tumors are vertebral lesions that are usually asymptomatic and discovered incidentally on imaging of the head or spine. As this is a poorly-recognized entity, it can often be confused with aggressive vertebral lesions, such as a chordoma, when it is seen on imaging. Epid...

Bertolotti syndrome

Bertolotti syndrome refers to the association between lumbosacral transitional vertebrae and low back pain. Although it may be a consideration in younger patients, the entity is considered controversial and has been both supported and disputed since the Italian radiologist Mario Bertolotti (187...

Bilateral facet dislocation

A bilateral facet dislocation is an unstable flexion distraction type of dislocation of the cervical spine, often a result of buckling force. Occasionally, the bilateral facet dislocation has been named a 'doubly-locked' vertebral injury giving the impression of stability. However, due to comple...

Bladder impairment following spinal cord injury

A commonly used classification scheme used by urologists and rehabilitation specialists, described by Wein, classifies bladder impairment following spinal cord injury according to the level of injury: suprasacral (infrapontine) bladder - upper motor neuron lesion, releasing the sacral micturiti...

Bladder neuroanatomy

Neuroanatomy of the bladder is complex, described here is a summary of the co-ordination of micturition. The bladder acts as a reservoir normally storing 400-500 mL of urine under low pressure (<15 cmH2O) before voluntary voiding can occur at a socially-convenient time. Bladder filling and empt...

Block vertebra

Block vertebra is a type of vertebral anomaly where there is a failure of separation of two or more adjacent vertebral bodies. It is an anatomic variant. Pathology In a block vertebra, there is partial or complete fusion of adjacent vertebral bodies. Associations hemivertebrae/absent vertebr...

Blunt cerebrovascular injury

Blunt cerebrovascular injury (BCVI) is an uncommon but serious consequence of blunt trauma to the head and neck. Epidemiology It is often part of multi-trauma with a significant series of blunt trauma CTA reporting an incidence of approximately 1% 3. A large systematic review and meta-analysis...

Bone within a bone appearance

Bone within a bone is a descriptive term applied to bones that appear to have another bone within them. There are numerous causes including: normal thoracic and lumbar vertebrae (neonates and infants) growth recovery lines (after infancy) cortical splitting and new periostitis sickle cell d...

Bone within a bone appearance (mnemonic)

A useful mnemonic to remember the possible etiologies of a bone within a bone appearance is: GHOST DRAGON Mnemonic G: growth arrest lines H: heavy metals, hypoparathyroidism, hypothyroidism O: osteopetrosis S: sickle cell anemia, scurvy, syphilis T: thalassemia, tuberculosis D: disease o...

Boogard's angle

Boogard's angle is measured by drawing a line from basion to opisthion and another line along the plane of the clivus to the basion intersecting the first line - the angle between these two lines is measured. The normal angle is 126° +/- 6°. If the angle measures more than 136° it is indicative...

Borden classification of dural arteriovenous fistulas

The Borden classification of dural arteriovenous fistulas (DAVF) groups these lesions into three types based upon the site of venous drainage and the presence or absence of cortical venous drainage. It was first proposed in 1995 1. At the time of writing (July 2016), it is probably less popular ...

Brachial plexus

The brachial plexus is a complex neural network formed by lower cervical and upper thoracic ventral nerve roots which supplies motor and sensory innervation to the upper limb and pectoral girdle. It is located in the neck extending into the axilla posterior to the clavicle. Summary origin: ven...

Brown-Séquard syndrome

Brown-Séquard syndrome, also known as hemicord syndrome, is the result of damage to, or impairment of, the left or right side of the spinal cord. It is characterized by a characteristic pattern of motor and sensory deficits that are determined by the decussation pattern of various white matter t...

Bullet-shaped vertebra

Bullet-shaped vertebra refers to the anterior beaking of the vertebral body. It is seen in the following conditions: mucopolysaccharidosis (Morquio disease, Hurler disease) achondroplasia congenital hypothyroidism See also weapons and munitions inspired signs

Burst fracture

Burst fractures are a type of compression fracture related to high-energy axial loading spinal trauma that results in disruption of the posterior vertebral body cortex with retropulsion into the spinal canal. Clinical presentation They usually present as back pain and or lower limbs neurologi...

Butterfly vertebra

Butterfly vertebra is a type of vertebral anomaly that results from the failure of fusion of the lateral halves of the vertebral body because of persistent notochordal tissue between them. Pathology Associations an anterior spina bifida, with or without an anterior meningocele can be part of...

C7 vertebra

C7, also known as the vertebra prominens, is the seventh cervical vertebra and looks like vertebra C3-C6, but has some distinct features making it one of the atypical vertebrae. The name vertebra prominens arises from its long spinous process, which is easily palpable. Gross anatomy C7 posses...

Calcific tendinitis of the longus colli muscle

Calcific tendinitis of the longus colli muscles is an inflammatory/granulomatous response to the deposition of calcium hydroxyapatite crystals in the tendons of the longus colli muscle. It is sometimes more generically known as calcific prevertebral tendinitis or, less accurately, as retropharyn...

Calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate deposition disease

Calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate disease (CPPD), also known as pyrophosphate arthropathy or pseudogout, is defined by the co-occurrence of arthritis with evidence of CPPD deposition within the articular cartilage. Terminology The terminology regarding CPPD disease has been confusing, with chon...

Camptocormia

Camptocormia (bent spine syndrome or cyphose hystérique) is a rare syndrome characterized by involuntary flexion of the thoracolumbar spine with weight-bearing which reduces when laying down, and is due to isolated atrophy of the paraspinal muscles. Epidemiology In a small case series (n=16), ...

Cancellous bone

Cancellous, trabecular or spongy bone is one of the two macroscopic forms of bone, the other being cortical bone, and comprises 20% of skeletal mass. Gross anatomy Cancellous bone is located in the medullary cavity of bone, in particular tubular and short bones, and consists of dense trabecul...

Castellvi classification of lumbosacral transitional vertebrae

The Castellvi classification is used for lumbosacral transitional vertebra (LSTV): type I: enlarged and dysplastic transverse process (at least 19 mm) Ia: unilateral Ib: bilateral type II: pseudoarticulation of the transverse process and sacrum with incomplete lumbarization/sacralization; en...

Catheter-associated mass

Catheter-associated mass, also known as catheter tip granuloma, is a relatively rare complication related to an intrathecal catheter. Terminology Although the term catheter tip granuloma is commonly found in the literature, some favor the more general term catheter-associated mass as they actu...

Cauda equina

The cauda equina is the collective term given to nerve roots distal to the conus medullaris, which occupy the lumbar cistern. Its name comes from the Latin for "horse's tail".

Cauda equina syndrome

Cauda equina syndrome is considered an incomplete cord syndrome, even though it occurs below the conus. Cauda equina syndrome refers to a collection of symptoms and signs that result from severe compression of the descending lumbar and sacral nerve roots. It is most commonly caused by an acutely...

Caudal epidural injection

Caudal epidural injections, or sacral hiatus epidural injections, are one of several possible spinal epidural injections. Indications Typically, epidural injections are performed in patients who are currently not surgical candidates. The caudal injection can be performed when patients are on ...

Caudal regression syndrome

Caudal regression syndrome represents a spectrum of structural defects of the caudal region. Malformations vary from isolated partial agenesis of the coccyx to lumbosacral agenesis. Epidemiology Caudal regression syndrome is rare, with an estimated incidence of 1:7500-100,000 7,10. The vast m...

Central canal

The central canal is the longitudinal CSF-filled space which runs the entire length of the spinal cord and represents the most caudal portion of the ventricular system. It is lined by ependyma. Gross anatomy The central canal spans the length of the spinal cord from the caudal angle of the fou...

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