Articles
Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.
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427 results found
Article
2001 WHO classification of hepatic hydatid cysts
The 2001 World Health Organization (WHO) classification of hepatic hydatid cysts is used to assess the stage of hepatic hydatid cyst on ultrasound and is useful in deciding the appropriate management for it depending on the stage of the cyst. This classification was proposed by the WHO in 2001 a...
Article
2005 WHO histological classification of odontogenic tumors
The 2005 WHO histological classification of odontogenic tumors lays out a classification system for neoplasms and other tumors related to the odontogenic apparatus. At the time of writing (2016), it is still the most widely used classification system although a new revision is due to come up in ...
Article
2014 WHO classification of endometrial stromal tumors
Endometrial stromal tumors (EST) constitute <2% of all uterine tumors and <10% of uterine mesenchymal neoplasms 1.
Over the past four decades, EST classification has gone through various modifications, starting from the earliest study by Norris and Taylor 2. This was primarily due to the rarit...
Article
2016 Histiocyte Society classification of histiocytoses
The 2016 Histiocyte Society classification of histiocytoses and neoplasms of macrophage-dendritic cell lineages is a proposed revision of the organization's initial classification system from 1987.
Terminology
Histiocytes are mononuclear phagocytes that reside in tissues, including macrophages...
Article
5-tier ACR system of radiologic breast findings
The 5-tier ACR system was a previously used system for classification of radiologic breast findings, proposed by the American College of Radiology (ACR). It is no longer in widespread use, having been gradually superseded by the 6-tier BI-RADS classification system first published in 1992.
5: ...
Article
AAST injury scoring scales
The American Association for the Surgery of Trauma (AAST) injury scoring scales are the most widely accepted and used system of classifying and categorizing traumatic injuries. Injury grade reflects severity, guides management, and aids in prognosis. Currently (early 2019), 32 different injury s...
Article
AAST kidney injury scale
The American Association for the Surgery of Trauma (AAST) renal injury scale, most recently updated in 2018, is the most widely used grading system for renal trauma.
The 2018 update incorporates "vascular injury" (i.e. pseudoaneurysm, arteriovenous fistula) into the imaging criteria for viscera...
Article
AAST liver injury scale
The AAST (American Association for the Surgery of Trauma) liver injury scale, most recently revised in 2018, is the most widely used liver injury grading system 3.
The 2018 update incorporates "vascular injury" (i.e. pseudoaneurysm, arteriovenous fistula) into the imaging criteria for visceral ...
Article
AAST spleen injury scale
The American Association for the Surgery of Trauma (AAST) splenic injury scale, most recently revised in 2018, is currently the most widely used grading system for splenic trauma.
The 2018 update incorporates "vascular injury" (i.e. pseudoaneurysm, arteriovenous fistula) into the imaging criter...
Article
ABC/2
ABC/2 is a fast and simple method for estimating the volume of intracerebral hemorrhage (or any other ellipsoid lesion for that matter) which does not require volumetric 3D analysis or software. Intracerebral hemorrhage volume is an important predictor of morbidity and mortality (and thus trial ...
Article
Abdominal hernia
Abdominal hernias (herniae also used) may be congenital or acquired and come with varying eponyms. They are distinguished primarily based on location and content. 75-80% of all hernias are inguinal.
Content of the hernia is variable, and may include:
small bowel loops
mobile colon segments (s...
Article
Achondrogenesis 1A
Achondrogenesis type Ia, also known as the Houston-Harris subtype, is a subtype of achondrogenesis. It is an extremely rare lethal skeletal dysplasia (chondrodysplasia) with a characteristic severe disarrangement of endochondral ossification.
Clinical presentation
Some of the common clinical f...
Article
ACR Thyroid Imaging Reporting and Data System (ACR TI-RADS)
ACR TI-RADS is a reporting system for thyroid nodules on ultrasound proposed by the American College of Radiology (ACR) 1.
This uses a standardized scoring system for reports providing users with recommendations for when to use fine needle aspiration (FNA) or ultrasound follow-up of suspicious ...
Article
Acute coronary syndrome
Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is a group of cardiac diagnoses along a spectrum of severity due to the interruption of coronary blood flow to the myocardium, which in decreasing severity are:
ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI)
non-ST elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI)
unstable an...
Article
Agatston score
Agatston score is a semi-automated tool to calculate a score based on the extent of coronary artery calcification detected by an unenhanced low-dose CT scan, which is routinely performed in patients undergoing cardiac CT. Due to an extensive body of research, it allows for an early risk stratifi...
Article
Ahlbäck classification of osteoarthritis of the knee joint
This classification was proposed by Ahlback et al. in 1968.
According to Ahlbäck system, knee joint osteoarthritis is classified as:
grade 1: joint space narrowing (less than 3 mm)
grade 2: joint space obliteration
grade 3: minor bone attrition (0-5 mm)
grade 4: moderate bone attrition (5-1...
Article
Alberta stroke program early CT score (ASPECTS)
The Alberta stroke programme early CT score (ASPECTS) 1 is a 10-point quantitative topographic CT scan score used in patients with middle cerebral artery stroke. It has also been adapted for the posterior circulation (see below).
Scoring system
Segmental assessment of the MCA vascular territo...
Article
Allen and Ferguson classification of subaxial cervical spine injuries
Allen and Ferguson classification is used for research purposes to classify subaxial spine injuries. It is based ofn the mechanism of injury and position of the neck during injury. This classification was proposed by Allen and Ferguson in 19823 and at the time of writing (July 2016) remains the ...
Article
American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons classification of periprosthetic hip fractures
The American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons classification of periprosthetic hip fractures divides the femur into three separate regions:
level I: proximal femur distally to the lower extent of the lesser trochanter
level II: 10 cm of femur distal to level I
level III: femur distal to level...
Article
American Dental Association Universal Numbering System
The American Dental Association Universal Numbering System is a tooth notation system primarily used in the United States.
Teeth are numbered from the viewpoint of the dental practitioner looking into the open mouth, clockwise starting from the distalmost right maxillary teeth.
Permanent teeth...
Article
Amsterdam criteria for HNPCC
The Amsterdam criteria are used in the diagnosis hereditary non polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC).
Amsterdam Criteria I
Initial description in 1991:
> or equal to 3 relatives with colorectal cancer (CRC)
> or equal to 1 case in a first degree relative
> or equal to 2 successive generation...
Article
Anderson and D'Alonzo classification of odontoid process fracture
The Anderson and D'Alonzo classification is the most commonly used classification of fractures of the odontoid process of C2.
Classification
type I
rare
fracture of the upper part of the odontoid peg
above the level of the transverse band of the cruciform ligament
usually considered stable...
Article
Ankle fractures
Ankle fractures account for ~10% of fractures encountered in trauma, preceded only in incidence by proximal femoral fractures in the lower limb. They have a bimodal presentation, involving young males and older females. Ankle injuries play a major part in post multitrauma functional impairment t...
Article
Ann Arbor staging system
The Ann Arbor staging system is the landmark lymphoma staging classification system for both Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
It is named after the town of Ann Arbor in the US state of Michigan where the Committee on Hodgkin's Disease Staging Classification met in 1971 to agree on it...
Article
Anterior cruciate ligament avulsion fracture
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) avulsion fracture or tibial eminence avulsion fracture is a type of avulsion fracture of the knee. This typically involves separation of the tibial attachment of the ACL to variable degrees. Separation at the femoral attachment is rare 5.
Epidemiology
It is mor...
Article
AO classification of proximal humeral fractures
The AO classification of proximal humeral fractures, along with the Neer classification, is one of the most frequently used systems for classifying proximal humeral fractures.
The AO classification divides proximal humeral fractures into three groups, A, B and C, each with subgroups, and place...
Article
AO classification of sacral injuries
The AO classification of sacral injuries aims to simplify and universalise the process of classifying sacral injuries and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability.
The AO sacral classification is broken into three subsections that follow a hierarchical structure similar to the AO cla...
Article
AO classification of subaxial injuries
The AO classification of subaxial injuries aims to simplify and universalise the classification of subaxial cervical spine fractures and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability.
The AO subaxial cervical spine injury classification involves four criteria based on morphology, facet in...
Article
AO classification of thoracolumbar injuries
The AO classification of thoracolumbar injuries aims to simplify and universalise the process of classifying spinal injuries and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability 3.
The AOSpine thoracolumbar classification system consists of only three classes of thoracolumbar injuries. Unlik...
Article
AO classification of upper cervical injuries
The AO classification of upper cervical injuries aims to simplify and universalise the process of classifying upper cervical injuries and improve interobserver and intraobserver reliability.
Injuries are based on location specific patterns and divided into:
type 1: occipital condyle and occipi...
Article
AO Spine classification systems
The AO Spine classification systems is a group of imaging morphology-based classification system, combined with clinical factors for injury of spinal trauma. It is designed to be a simple and reproducible method of describing injury patterns.
At the time of writing (Oct 2018), the 4 published c...
Article
APACHE score
The Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) score is a illness severity score commonly used in critical care medicine to predict mortality upon admission to an intensive care unit.
Criteria
It involves two sections - one assessing the severity of the acute illness and another ...
Article
Apgar score
Apgar score was originally described by Virginia Apgar (American anaesthesiologist, 1909-1974) in 1952.
Helpfully, her surname is also a useful mnemonic for remembering the 5 factors: each is graded as 0, 1 or 2 with a total possible score of 10. The lower the score the worse the prognosis.
Th...
Article
Arnold-Hilgartner classification of haemophilic arthropathy
Arnold-Hilgartner classification is a plain radiograph grading system for haemophilic arthropathy of the knee 1,2:
stage 0: normal joint
stage I: no skeletal abnormalities, soft-tissue swelling is present
stage II: osteoporosis and overgrowth of the epiphysis, no cysts, no narrowing of the ca...
Article
Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy diagnostic criteria
For the diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) to be made, patients must have either two major criteria, one major and two minor criteria, or four minor criteria.
Major criteria
global or regional dysfunction and structural alterations:
severe dilatation of the ri...
Article
Artificial Intelligence (AI) TI-RADS
AI TI-RADS (Artificial Intelligence Thyroid Imaging Reporting and Data System) is a data-driven analysis and revision of the 2017 ACR TI-RADS 1. Published in May 2019 2, this had the intention of simplifying categorization and improving specificity while maintaining high sensitivity. This system...
Article
ASAS sacroiliitis classification system
First published in 2009 with a revised consensus in 2016, the Assessment in SpondyloArthritis International Society (ASAS) classification system utilizes imaging features of the sacroiliac joints on MR imaging to assist in characterizing the presence of sacroiliitis.
The ASAS classification is ...
Article
ASCOD classification (ischemic stroke)
The ASCOD classification system 1, published in 2013, aims to define phenotypes of ischemic strokes for individual patients by assigning a degree of probability to each of the most common causes of this pathology.
It serves most strictly as a research tool, but is also useful clinically as a mn...
Article
ASIA impairment scale for spinal injury
The American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale was developed by the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) in 2006, was revised in 2011, and remains the most widely used neurologic classification of spinal cord injury.
Classification
The scale divides spinal cord injuries into 5 ca...
Article
Autoimmune pancreatitis (diagnostic criteria)
There are several sets of diagnostic criteria for autoimmune pancreatitis (AIP), with some overlap and contradictions.
At the time of writing (July 2016), these are the most widely used sets of diagnostic criteria.
Asian 2008 AIP diagnostic criteria
both criteria I to be fulfilled
one criter...
Article
Bado classification of Monteggia fracture-dislocations
The Bado classification is one of the more widely used classifications for Monteggia fracture-dislocations and mainly focuses on the radial component. Four types are recognized and are generally based on the principle that the direction in which the apex of the ulnar fracture points is the same ...
Article
Bähren classification of left varicoceles
Bähren classification of left varicoceles:
type 0: no evidence of venous reflux in internal spermatic vein (ISV)
type I: single ISV with insufficient or absent valve
type II: single ISV with ≥ 2 ostia to renal vein; may be branches to ascending lumbar/retroperitoneal veins
IIa: insufficient ...
Article
Bailey classification of second branchial cleft cysts
This classification was initially proposed by Bailey in 1929 2 and remains the most widely used classification system at time of writing (July 2016).
Bailey classification of second branchial cleft cysts provides a structure for classing second branchial cleft cysts into four types. It is no lo...
Article
Balthazar score
The Balthazar score is a subscore within the CT severity index (CTSI) for grading of acute pancreatitis.
The CTSI sums two scores:
Balthazar score: grading of pancreatitis (A-E)
grading the extent of pancreatic necrosis
The Balthazar score was originally used alone, but the addition of a sc...
Article
Barkovich classification of focal cortical dysplasia
Barkovich classifies focal cortical dysplasias among the his extensive classification system for malformations of cortical development, distributing them as follows:
Type I and type IIb (transcortical dysplasia - Taylor type with balloon cells) as non-neoplastic malformations due to abnormal ne...
Article
Barrow classification of caroticocavernous fistulae
Barrow caroticocavernous fistula classification divides caroticocavernous fistulas into direct (type A) or indirect (types B-D). This classification was proposed by Barrow et al. in 1985 1 and at the time of writing (mid 2016) remains the most widely used system for describing caroticocavernous ...
Article
Bent bone dysplasias (differential)
Bent bone dysplasias are a class of dysplasia included in a 2010 classification of genetic skeletal disorders 1.
campomelic dysplasia
Stuve-Weidemann dysplasia
kyphomelic dysplasias, a diverse class, including
congenital bowing of the long bones
cartilage-hair hypoplasia (CHH; metaphyseal d...
Article
Berndt and Harty classification
Berndt and Harty classification is used for osteochondral lesions of the talus.
Classification
stage I: subchondral bone compression (marrow edema)
stage II
stage IIa: subchondral cyst
stage IIb: incomplete separation of fragment
stage III: complete separation but no displacement
stage IV...
Article
Bethesda criteria of hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer
The Bethesda criteria are an alternative to the Amsterdam criteria for the clinical diagnosis of hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC).
Diagnosis of HNPCC is made if any of the following criteria are fulfilled:
Amsterdam criteria are met
2 or more HNPCC related malignancies
pa...
Article
Biffl scale for blunt cerebrovascular injury
The Biffl scale or grade illustrates the spectrum of blunt cerebrovascular injury (BCVI) seen on angiography (both CTA and DSA). Some authors refer to the grading scale as the Denver scale, which is not to be confused with the Denver criteria, a series of clinical indications and risk factors fo...
Article
BI-RADS 0
BI-RADS 0 is one of six categories from the breast imaging reporting and data system and is used when imaging is incomplete such as:
when further imaging or information is required, e.g. compression, magnification, special mammographic views, ultrasound
when requesting previous images not avai...
Article
BI-RADS 1
A BI-RADS 1 category under the breast imaging reporting and data system is when no finding is present in an imaging modality (not even a benign finding).
Article
BI-RADS 2
BI-RADS 2 is a benign category in the breast imaging reporting and data system. A finding placed in this category should have essentially a 100% chance of being benign.
Examples of such lesions include:
calcified fibroadenomas
multiple secretory calcifications
fat-containing lesions such as...
Article
BI-RADS 3
BI-RADS 3 is an intermediate category in the breast imaging reporting and data system. A finding placed in this category is considered probably benign, with a risk of malignancy between 0% and 2%.
Terminology
BI-RADS 3 should not be utilized in the screening setting. It should be reserved for ...
Article
BI-RADS 4
A BI-RADS 4 lesion under the breast imaging reporting and data system refers to a suspicious abnormality. BI-RADS 4 lesions may not have the characteristic morphology of breast cancer but have a definite probability of being malignant. A biopsy is recommended for these lesions. If possible, the ...
Article
BI-RADS 5
BI-RADS 5 lesions under the BI-RADS (breast imaging reporting and data system) refer to breast lesions that are highly suspicious for malignancy, requiring appropriate action to be taken (i.e. biopsy and management as appropriate). BI-RADS 5 lesions have the characteristic morphology of breast c...
Article
BI-RADS 6
BI-RADS 6 is an assessment category of the ACR (American College of Radiology) BI-RADS system.
Patients with biopsy-proven cancer prior to definitive therapy would be category 6.
Article
Bismuth-Corlette classification
The Bismuth-Corlette classification is a classification system for perihilar cholangiocarcinomas, which is based on the extent of ductal infiltration.
Classification
type I
limited to the common hepatic duct, below the level of the confluence of the right and left hepatic ducts
type II
in...
Article
Bladder impairment following spinal cord injury
A commonly used classification scheme used by urologists and rehabilitation specialists, described by Wein, classifies bladder impairment following spinal cord injury according to the level of injury:
suprasacral (infrapontine) bladder - upper motor neuron lesion, releasing the sacral micturiti...
Article
Blumcke classification of focal cortical dysplasia
Blumcke et al. proposed the most recent (2011) 2 and now widely adopted consensus classification system for focal cortical dysplasia, which shares many features with the previously described classifications system by Palmini (2004) and Barkovich (2005).
Unfortunately, as is the case with many ...
Article
Bolger classification of maxillary sinus hypoplasia
The Bolger classification of maxillary sinus hypoplasia proposed by Bolger et al. in 1990 1 takes into account associated anomalies of the uncinate process, which are of utmost importance for planning functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS).
Maxillary sinus hypoplasia in itself is asymptomat...
Article
Bone tumors
There are a bewildering number of bone tumors with a wide variety of radiological appearances:
bone-forming tumors
osteoid osteoma
osteoblastoma
osteoma
osteosarcoma
cartilage-forming tumors
enchondroma
enchondromatosis-Ollier disease
Maffucci syndrome
osteochondroma:
hereditary multi...
Article
Borden classification of dural arteriovenous fistulas
The Borden classification of dural arteriovenous fistulas (DAVF) groups these lesions into three types based upon the site of venous drainage and the presence or absence of cortical venous drainage. It was first proposed in 1995 1. At the time of writing (July 2016), it is probably less popular ...
Article
Bosniak classification system of renal cystic masses
The Bosniak classification system of renal cystic masses divides renal cystic masses into five categories based on imaging characteristics on contrast-enhanced CT. It is helpful in predicting a risk of malignancy and suggesting either follow up or treatment.
Classification
Bosniak I
simple cy...
Article
Bouthillier classification of internal carotid artery segments
Bouthillier et al. described (in 1996) 1 a seven segment internal carotid artery (ICA) classification system. It remains the most widely used system for describing ICA segments at the time of writing (mid-2016).
There are a few other classifications systems including those proposed by Fisher (1...
Article
Boyden classification of bronchi
The Boyden classification of bronchi refers to the standard nomenclature used to describe bronchopulmonary segmental anatomy.
Each lung has 10 segments, however on the left, the first two segments share a common trunk and are hence B1/2. Also given the shared trunk on the left of the lower lobe...
Article
Brachydactyly type A1 (Farabee type)
Brachydactyly type A1 or Farabee type brachydactyly is a subtype of brachydactyly. It was the first human anomaly recognized to have a mendelian pattern of inheritance. The anomaly is characterized by hypoplasia or aplasia of middle phalanges of the second to fifth digits in hands and feet and p...
Article
Brachydactyly type A2 (Mohr-Wriedt type)
Brachydactyly type A2 or Mohr-Wriedt type is characterized by hypoplasia/aplasia of the second middle phalanx of the index finger, second toe and sometimes little finger. There is radial deviation of the index finger and tibial deviation of the second toe.
Pathology
Type A2 brachydactyly can b...
Article
Brachydactyly type A3
Brachydactyly type A3 is characterized by shortening of the middle phalanx of the little finger with radial deviation of distal phalanx. Slanting of the distal articular surface of the middle phalanx leads to radial deflection of the distal phalanx. However it is not always associated with clino...
Article
Brachydactyly type A4 (Temtamy type)
Brachydactyly type A4 or Temtamy type is characterized by brachymesophalangy (absent or hypoplastic middle phalanx) of the second and fifth fingers. Other less common features include club foot, clinodactyly, ulnar deviation of the second finger.
Pathology
Like other brachydactyly, type A4 is ...
Article
Brachydactyly type A5
Brachydactyly type A5 is characterized by absence of the middle phalanges and nail dysplasia with duplicated terminal phalanx of the thumb with resultant bifid thumb. Inheritance is suggested as autosomal dominant.
Article
Brainstem stroke syndromes
Brainstem stroke syndromes, also known as crossed brainstem syndromes, refer to a group of syndromes that occur secondary to lesions, most commonly infarcts, of the brainstem.
Epidemiology
Although many different brainstem stroke syndromes have been classically described, the majority appear e...
Article
Brasfield scoring system
The Brasfield scoring system is a scoring system for patients with cystic fibrosis. The score is based on conventional chest radiographic findings and has been reported to have good correlation with pulmonary function. There can be intra- and interobserver variability between radiologists.
Ther...
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS)
BI-RADS (Breast Imaging-Reporting and Data System) is a risk assessment and quality assurance tool developed by American College of Radiology that provides a widely accepted lexicon and reporting schema for imaging of the breast. It applies to mammography, ultrasound, and MRI. This article refle...
Article
British Athletics muscle injury classification
The British Athletics muscle injury classification is a five-point MRI-based system that is based on extent and site. It has been primarily based on hamstring injuries but is used in other muscle injuries. The classification system has been shown to have moderate inter- and intra-rater agreeabil...
Article
Callen MS-ADEM criteria
The Callen MS-ADEM criteria can be useful in differentiating between acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) and multiple sclerosis (MS) in children, as the first attack of immune-mediated demyelination is a frequent diagnostic challenge.
Given the diagnostic challenge, several diagnostic c...
Article
Capsulolabral insertion classification
There is variation in the relationship between the glenoid labrum and the anterior shoulder joint capsule. This has been divided into three types:
Type 1: capsule inserts into the labrum proper
Type 2: capsule inserts into the base of the labrum, or within 1 cm of the base
Type 3: capsule ins...
Article
Cardiomyopathy
Cardiomyopathy is defined as a "disease of the myocardium with associated cardiac dysfunction" 1. It has been classified according to several systems:
1995 WHO/ISFC cardiomyopathy classification system
Elliott et al. classification system: published by the European Society of Cardiology Workin...
Article
Cardiomyopathy (WHO/ISFC 1995 classification)
Cardiomyopathy classification separates the various cardiomyopathies into several subtypes. Cardiomyopathy is defined as a "disease of the myocardium with associated cardiac dysfunction".
It was initially classified according to the 1995 World Health Organization / International Society and Fed...
Article
Carpentier classification of mitral valve regurgitation
The Carpentier classification divides mitral valve regurgitation into three types based on leaflet motion 1:
type I: normal leaflet motion
annular dilation, leaflet perforation
regurgitation jet directed centrally
type II: excessive leaflet motion
papillary muscle rupture, chordal rupture, ...
Article
Castellvi classification of lumbosacral transitional vertebrae
The Castellvi classification is used for lumbosacral transitional vertebra (LSTV):
type I: enlarged and dysplastic transverse process (at least 19 mm)
Ia: unilateral
Ib: bilateral
type II: pseudoarticulation of the transverse process and sacrum with incomplete lumbarisation/sacralisation; en...
Article
Catterall classification of Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease
The Catterall classification is based on radiographic appearances of the epiphysis and metaphysis visible in osteonecrosis of the femoral head:
stage I
bone absorption changes visible in the anterior aspect of the epiphysis of femoral head
changes are visible best in frog leg lateral view
no...
Article
Central venous catheter
Central venous catheters (CVC) or lines (CVL) refer to a wide range of central venous access devices but can broadly be divided into four categories. They may be inserted by medical, surgical, anesthetic/ITU, or radiology specialists.
Classification
peripherally inserted central catheters (PIC...
Article
Cervical degenerative spondylosis (grading)
Cervical degenerative disease can be graded using a very old but reliable classification given by Kellgren et al. It is based on findings on a lateral cervical spine radiograph although it can also be applied to MRI evaluation of spine.
The key parameters are osteophyte formation, intervertebra...
Article
Cervical spine fracture classification systems
There are several cervical spine fracture classification systems:
Anderson and D'Alonzo classification (odontoid fracture)
Roy-Camille classification (odontoid fracture)
Levine and Edwards classification (for traumatic injuries to axis)
Allen and Ferguson classification (subaxial spine injur...
Article
Child-Pugh score
The Child-Pugh score is a scoring system to measure the severity of chronic liver disease inclusive of cirrhosis. The intention is to provide a system with which clinicians can objectively communicate about liver function.
The score is composed from several categories:
total bilirubin, μmol/l ...
Article
Choi response criteria
Use only the size of the tumor during evaluation of response to chemotherapy has some pitfalls and limitations, especially when the estimated response for specific tumors such as gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST).
The Choi response criteria for GIST proposed that tumor attenuation could pro...
Article
Chrispin-Norman scoring system for cystic fibrosis
The Chrispin-Norman score is used to provide a summative assessment of structural lung changes in patients with cystic fibrosis on plain chest radiographs.
It is useful to monitor disease progression or treatment response and can be used to compare between different patients in research studies...
Article
Chronic suppurative lung disease
Chronic suppurative lung disease (CSLD) refers to a group of conditions which includes:
cystic fibrosis
bronchiectasis
primary ciliary dyskinesia
This term is usually used in the context of pediatric patients.
Article
Ciliopathies
Ciliopathies refer to diseases due to malfunctioning cilia (singular: cilium). Cilia are organelles that are external extensions of the cell membrane. Cilia fall into two main types: primary (or immotile) cilia and motile cilia.
Clinical presentation
Primary cilia are found in virtually every...
Article
Classification of cerebral vascular malformations
Cerebral vascular malformations encompass a large variety vascular lesions which differ in hemodynamics, structure and prognosis. Some can be life threatening (e.g. vein of Galen aneurysmal malformations, arteriovenous malformations) whilst others are almost always incidental and asymptomatic (e...
Article
Classification of ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS)
The new pathological classification of DCIS is based on cytonuclear atypia, degree of necrosis, size, and distance from margin/architecture. Low and intermediate grades DCIS require cytologic, architectural and size criteria to be met but high-grade DCIS requires only cytologic criteria; this is...
Article
Classification of endoleaks
Endoleaks occur when an aneurysmal sac continues to be pressurised despite endoluminal stent placement. See the full article on endoleaks here.
Classification
There are five types:
type I: leak at graft ends (inadequate seal) - most common after repair of thoracic aortic aneurysms 4
Ia: prox...
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