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149 results found

14-3-3 protein

14-3-3 proteins are found in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and are currently used to help identify patients with sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD). Seven distinct 14-3-3 proteins have been found in humans. In diagnosing sCJD, the sensitivity of 14-3-3 protein is 92% and its specifici...

1p19q codeletion

1p19q codeletion stands for the combined loss of the short arm chromosome 1 (i.e. 1p) and the long arm of chromosome 19 (19q) and is recognised as a genetic marker predictive of therapeutic response to both chemotherapy and combined chemoradiotherapy and overall longer survival in patients with ...

2005 WHO histological classification of odontogenic tumors

The 2005 WHO histological classification of odontogenic tumors lays out a classification system for neoplasms and other tumors related to the odontogenic apparatus. At the time of writing (2016), it is still the most widely used classification system although a new revision is due to come up in ...

2-hydroxyglutarate

2-hydroxyglutarate is a metabolite that accumulates in the brains of patients with IDH-1 mutated (IDH-1 positive) brain tumors, particularly diffuse low-grade gliomas. Although not in widespread clinical use, it is likely that 2-hydroxyglutarate, which resonates at 2.25 ppm, will be able to be d...

Adenoma-carcinoma sequence

The adenoma-carcinoma sequence refers to a stepwise pattern of mutational activation of oncogenes (e.g. K-ras) and inactivation of tumor suppressor genes (e.g. p53) that results in cancer. An oncogene is a gene that has the potential to cause cancer. In tumor cells, these are often mutated or ex...

Alpha fetoprotein

Alpha fetoprotein (AFP) is an important plasma protein synthesised by the yolk sac and fetal liver. In adults its main utility is as a tumor marker, primarily for hepatocellular carcinoma or teratoma. Functionally it is the fetal homologue of albumin, i.e. it acts as a major carrier protein in t...

Alpha thalassemia/mental retardation syndrome X-linked (ATRX)

Alpha-thalassemia/mental retardation syndrome X-linked (ATRX) gene is an important genomic marker of gliomas and is either intact (ATRX wild-type) or mutated (ATRX-mutant) and is correlated with other important genomic markers including IDH, 1p19q codeletion and p53 expression 1,2. ATRX and ID...

Alzheimer type I glia

Alzheimer type I glia are a type of glial cell. They are large multinucleated astrocytes encountered in glial tumors and progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) 1.

Alzheimer type II glia

Alzheimer type II glia are a type of glial cell. They are a pathological reactive astrocyte seen in the brain, unrelated to Alzheimer disease. They are seen most frequently in Wilson disease, but also in other systemic metabolic disorders, particularly those with elevated ammonia levels, typical...

Amino acids

Amino acids are the monomeric building blocks of proteins. Amino acids concatenate into chains, which are arbitrarily divided into peptides, polypeptides, or proteins according to chain length. Generally, chains of 10 or fewer amino acids are deemed to be peptides, chain length from 10-100 are p...

Amylase

Amylase is widely employed as a marker of acute pancreatitis and a significant elevation is diagnostic. Physiology α-amylase is a digestive enzyme that is predominantly secreted by the acinar cells of the exocrine pancreas. It is also secreted by the salivary glands. Pancreatic amylase is enco...

Anemia

Anemia is the presence of reduced hemoglobin in the blood. Formally, the World Health Organization (WHO) defines anemia by the hemoglobin concentration in the blood according to age and sex 1: adult men: <130 g/L adult women: <120 g/L Values for pregnant women and children are different. Pat...

Aspergillus clavatus

Aspergillus clavatus is one of the species of Aspergillus that can cause pathology in humans. It is allergenic and causes a hypersensitivity pneumonitis called malt-workers lung. See also Aspergillus Aspergillus fumigatus Aspergillus flavus Aspergillus clavatus

Astrocytes

Astrocytes are cells of the central nervous system which act as both physical and physiological support for the neurones that are embedded between them. They are particularly abundant in the grey matter, where they are the most abundant glial cells 1. They are highly branched and contribute to ...

Atypical small acinar proliferation

Atypical small acinar proliferations (ASAP) are premalignant lesions of the prostate, which can be found in as many as 5% of prostate biopsies. They are suspicious glands without adequate histologic atypia to establish a definitive diagnosis of prostate cancer. Some studies showed that there is ...

BRAF

BRAF (B-Raf proto-oncogene serine/threonine-protein kinase) is a proto-oncogene, encoding for a serine/threonine protein kinase. Mutations of BRAF are the most common alteration of the RAS/MAPK pathway and these have been identified in a variety of tumors and congenital syndromes including 1-5: ...

Brunner glands

Brunner glands are compound tubular submucosal glands found in the duodenum. They are only found proximal to the sphincter of Oddi. Related pathology Brunner gland hyperplasia Brunner gland adenoma

CA-125

CA-125 is a high-molecular-weight glycoprotein found on the surface of Mullerian and coelomic epithelial-derived cell types, and is the best known tumor marker for epithelial ovarian cancer 6. Importantly, it may also be elevated in several other conditions (see differential diagnosis section be...

CA 15-3

Carcinoma antigen 15-3, usually shortened to CA 15-3 is a tumor marker used in monitoring breast cancer. The test detects levels of MUC-1, a mucin protein in the blood. MUC-1 is thought to be important in the invasiveness and metastasization of cancer cells. Physiology MUC-1 is a normal epithe...

CA 19-9

CA 19-9 (carbohydrate antigen 19-9 or cancer antigen 19-9) is a serum antigen (monosialoganglioside) that has increased diagnostic use in the management of several malignancies, mainly of hepatopancreaticobiliary origin. It is non-specific, however, and can rise in both malignant and non-maligna...

CA 27-29

CA 27-29 is a tumor marker and is a soluble form of glycoprotein MUC1. It may be elevated in patients with breast cancer. Tumors of the colon, stomach, kidney, lung, ovary, pancreas, uterus, and liver may also raise CA 27-29 levels. Certain non-malignant conditions are also associated with its ...

Carcinoembryonic antigen

Serum carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) is a cell-adhesive glycoprotein that was discovered in colorectal cancer in 1965, and is hence one of the oldest and most used tumor markers. Its name derives from its normal expression in fetoembryonic liver, gut and pancreas tissue. Normal range of CEA is ...

Cerumen

Cerumen, also known as earwax, is a natural secretion produced by, and found within the external auditory canal (EAC). It has important roles as part of the first-line of defense of the ear from micro-organisms and optimising function of the tympanic membrane and EAC. Secretion Cerumen is secr...

Charcot-Leyden crystals

Charcot-Leyden crystals consist of collections of bipyramidal crystalloid made up of eosinophilic membrane proteins, which occur in: asthma other eosinophilic lung disease 2 certain cases of sinusitis (e.g. allergic fungal sinusitis) They may be detected in the sputum or sinus secretions wi...

Choristoma

A choristoma is simply a collection of microscopically normal cells or tissues in an abnormal location. This is different to a hamartoma which is derived only from local tissues. Examples include: adrenal choristoma (myelolipoma) nasopharyngeal choristoma facial nerve choristoma optic nerve...

Choroidal epithelial cells

Choroidal epithelial cells are one of the three types of ependymal cells, themselves a type of glial cell. They cover the surface of the choroid plexus and produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). 1.

Chromium

Chromium (chemical symbol Cr) has been categorized previously as one of the trace elements, and has been said to be important for glucose homeostasis, but this is now contentious (see below). Chemistry Basic chemistry Chromium has the atomic number 24 with an atomic weight of 51.9961 g/mol. L...

Chromogranin A

Chromogranin A (CgA) is an acidic secretory glycoprotein found in the secretory granules of neuroendocrine cells and neurones, as is a member of the granin family of proteins. It can be used both for immunohistochemical stains and as a serum marker 4. Immunohistochemistry Chromogranin A is us...

Chronic myeloid leukemia

Chronic myeloid leukemia, also known as chronic myelogenous leukemia, is a myeloproliferative neoplasm characterized by the overproduction of granulocytes with fairly normal differentiation. Epidemiology The annual incidence is about 1 per 100,000 1. The typical age at presentation is 50-60 ye...

Circumferential resection margin

The circumferential resection margin (CRM) is a term used in rectal carcinoma excision surgery (such as total mesorectal excision (TME)). Pathologic evaluation of the resection margin on the excised rectum has been considered important for determining the risk of local recurrence. A margin of ≤...

Columnar alteration with prominent apical snouts and secretions

Columnar alteration with prominent apical snouts and secretions (CAPSS) is a pathological entity encountered when breast biopsies are done for investigation of punctate or amorphous calcifications. CAPSS involves the terminal ductal and lobular units (TDLU's). It is sometimes classified under t...

Contrast-induced nephropathy

Contrast-induced nephropathy (CIN) describes an association between intravenous or intra-arterial contrast administration and renal impairment, but increasingly the evidence shows that contrast is not the cause of the renal impairment and that confounding factors such as sepsis are likely to be ...

Copper

Copper (chemical symbol Cu) is one of the trace elements. It has an important biological role as a redox agent and as a cofactor in cuproproteins, facilitating many vital metabolic reactions. Chemistry Basic chemistry Copper has the atomic number 29 with an atomic weight of 63.54 g/mol. It is...

Cowdry bodies

Cowdry bodies are neuronal intranuclear inclusions seen in Herpes simplex virus infections 1. Pathology Cowdry bodies are in fact fixation artifacts and not directly the result of the intracellular virus 2.

C-reactive protein

C-reactive protein (CRP) is an acute phase reactant commonly measured in clinical practice as a marker of inflammation and to monitor disease severity, disease course and treatment response. It should not be confused with protein C (an anticoagulant) or C-peptide (a component of proinsulin). Ph...

Cyst

A cyst is an abnormal fluid-filled structure which is lined by epithelium; with one exception: lung cysts contain gas, not fluid. By contradistinction, a pseudocyst lacks an epithelial lining and instead has a vascular and fibrotic capsule. Cysts are extremely common and found in most organs. E...

Decomposition

Decomposition of the human body occurs soon after death and is of relevance to radiology in the fields of post mortem and forensic radiology. Pathology Decomposition occurs due to two main processes 1,2: autolysis: degradation by destructive enzymes released by dying cells in the body putref...

Diverticulum

Diverticula are outpouchings of a hollow viscus and can be either true or false. Occasionally a diverticulum is used in a more general sense to mean the outpouching of other anatomical structures, e.g. frontal intersinus septal cells are hypothesised to form as diverticula from the frontal sinu...

Elevated vitamin B12

Elevated vitamin B12 (also known as hypervitaminosis B12 or hypercobalaminaemia) is most important as a diagnostic and prognostic marker for malignant disease 1,3. Very high serum levels of vitamin B12 do not seem to have any observable deleterious effects 2.

Enthesophytes

Enthesophytes (or enthesiophytes) are bony proliferations (spurs) that develop at an enthesis, that is at the attachment of a ligament, tendon or articular capsule onto bone. They are oriented along the direction of pull and develop in response to repetitive mechanical stress or a more generaliz...

Eosinophil

Eosinophils, also less commonly known as acidophiles, are myeloid granulocytes and form one of the main types of white blood cells. Their counts are routinely measured as part of a full blood count. They have important roles in fighting parasitic infections, but are increasingly recognised as ha...

Ependymal cells

Ependymal cells are one of the four main types of glial cells, and themselves encompass three types of cells 1: ependymocytes: line the ventricles of the brain and central canal of the spinal cord tanycytes: line the floor of the third ventricle choroidal epithelial cells: line the surface o...

Ependymal rosettes (ependymoma)

Ependymal rosettes correspond to a histologic architectural pattern that very characteristic of ependymomas, as tumor cells form structures similar to the lining of normal ventricles. They are characterized by a halo or spoke-wheel arrangement of tumor cells surrounding an empty central tubule l...

Ependymocytes

Ependymocytes are one of the three types of ependymal cells, which in turn are one of the four principles types of glial cells, and are found lining the ventricular system of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord 1. They do not form a water-tight barrier between the cerebrospinal ...

Epithelial membrane antigen (EMA)

Epithelial membrane antigen (EMA) is a commonly used target for immunohistochemisty, found on the surface of many epithelial cells and thus present in a wide variety of tumors. It also is sometimes seen within the cytoplasm of cells (e.g. perinuclear dot in ependymomas).

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is a non-specific marker of acute inflammation which is seen in a very wide spectrum of pathologies. In recent years it has been sidelined by the use of C-reactive protein and other acute phase markers but it still has an important role to play in the managem...

Essential elements

The essential elements are chemical elements which are essential for optimal physical and mental well being, and required in bulk (cf. trace elements) quantities in a normal human diet. The elements are: calcium magnesium phosphorus potassium sodium

Exophytic (definition)

Exophytic is a descriptive term used by radiologists/pathologists to describe solid organ lesions arising from the outer surface of the organ of origin. Literally exophytic only refers to those lesions arising from the outer surface, however radiologists and pathologists use the term to include...

Extranodal extension

Extranodal extension refers to the growth of a nodal cancer metastasis beyond the confines of the capsule of the lymph node into adjacent tissues. Less preferred synonyms include extranodal spread, extracapsular extension, or extracapsular spread. This finding holds prognostic implications. For ...

Fecal calprotectin

Fecal calprotectin (FCAL) is a protein which is a marker of inflammation of the gut used as a diagnostic tool and marker of disease activity for Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis. Biochemistry Calprotectin is a protein complex from the S-100 family, which is formed of three polypeptide chai...

Fistula

A fistula (plural fistulae) is an abnormal connection between two epithelial surfaces such as between hollow organs, skin or vessels. Conventionally, the name of a specific fistula type is a combination of the two organs For discussions of specific fistulae please refer to individual articles. ...

Flexner-Wintersteiner rosette

The presence of Flexner-Wintersteiner rosette is characteristic for retinoblastoma but is also seen in pineoblastoma and medulloepitheliomas.

Fracture healing

Fracture healing occurs naturally after traumatic bony disruption. This process begins with hemorrhage and progresses through three stages: inflammatory reparative remodelling This process can be supported by various treatment options with immobilization a mainstay; inappropriate treatment m...

Gadolinium

Gadolinium (chemical symbol Gd) is a metallic element that can be chelated into paramagnetic complexes for use as gadolinium contrast media. Chemistry Basic chemistry Gadolinium is a silvery rare earth metal with the atomic number 64 and an atomic weight of 157.25 g/mol. Applied chemistry T...

Gene expression classifier

A gene expression classifier (GEC) test is a developing technology in the analysis of indeterminate thyroid nodules, using cells from a fine needle aspiration. The most common commercially available GEC in the United States is known as AFIRMA. The test is designed to use molecular markers to he...

Glial cells

Glial cells, or neuroglia, are cells that surround the neurones of the central nervous system embedded between them, providing both structural and physiological support 1-3. Together they account for almost half of the total mass 1 and 90% of all cells of the central nervous system 3. These num...

Glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP)

Glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP) is a commonly used target for immunohistochemistry and is positive in many glial cells and tumors of glial origin. GFAP is the building block for intermediate filaments which are abundant in the cytoplasms particularly of astrocytes.

Gliosis

Gliosis is the focal proliferation of glial cells in the CNS in response to insult. By strict definition, gliosis is not synonymous with encephalomalacia which is the end result of liquefactive necrosis of brain parenchyma following an insult. Radiologically they share similar features and the d...

Glucagon

Glucagon is a polypeptide hormone central to the regulation of glucose homeostasis, acting as an antagonist to insulin. In imaging it is used as an antiperistaltic agent in GI studies, although its clinical efficacy is controversial. Structure Glucagon is a 29-amino acid polypeptide hormone t...

Hematoma

Hematomas are the name given to localised collections of blood and they can form virtually anywhere in the body. They often form secondary to trauma or surgery but spontaneous formation is also not uncommon, especially in those with coagulation disorders or on anticoagulant therapy. Hematomas m...

Haggitt level

The Haggitt level is a histopathological term used for describing the degree of infiltration from a malignant polypoidal lesion. Levels of invasion 0: carcinoma in situ or intramucosal carcinoma 1: invasion of the submucosa, but limited to the head of the polyp 2: invasion extending into the...

Heavy metals

Heavy metals is a vague term for a group of metallic chemical elements that under some definitions can refer to the vast majority of the metals known to science. In biological/medical terms heavy metals are a much smaller group, that for many practitioners is restricted to those that are potenti...

Hepascore

Hepascore is a biochemical severity scoring system based on liver function tests in predicting the extent of liver fibrosis/cirrhosis in patients with hepatitis C infection. Hepascore may also be applicable to other liver diseases and is being trialed for fatty liver disease and hepatitis B infe...

Hepatoblastoma histological classification

Although hepatoblastomas can be histologically classified into a variety of sub types, it is important to remember that with the possible exception of small cell undifferentiated sub type, prognosis is independent of histology when adjusted for stage gender and age 1. major categories epitheli...

Histological stains

Histological stains are chemicals dyes used to treat histological specimens to make tissues more readily visible by light microscopy and demonstrate underlying characteristics of the tissue. There are many stains, some with very specific uses, whereas other (e.g. hematoxylin and eosin stain (H&E...

Histology of blood vessels

Blood vessels, namely arteries and veins, are composed of endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells and extracellular matrix (including collagen and elastin). These are arranged into three concentric layers (or tunicae): intima, media and adventitia. the intima (or tunica intima) inner layer abut...

Homer Wright rosettes

Homer Wright rosettes are differentiated tumor cells grouped around a central region containing neuropil (therefore its association with tumors of neuronal origin). Pathology Examples of tumors where these can be seen include: medulloblastoma (the presence of Homer Wright rosettes in a poster...

Human epididymis protein 4

Human epididymis protein 4 (HE4) is an emerging serum biomarker in the assessment of epithelial ovarian tumors. HE4 is a member of the whey associated protein (WAP) gene cluster and has uncertain biological function 1. Early results indicate that HE4 has higher sensitivity and sensitivity than ...

Hydroureter

Hydroureter refers to abnormal dilation (>3 mm) of the ureter and may occur in combination with hydronephrosis. Terminology The term, megaureter, is usually reserved for ureters >7 mm in diameter. The term hydroureteronephrosis (or hydronephroureterosis) may be used when ureteric dilatation o...

Hypersensitivity reaction

Hypersensitivity reactions are the immunological response to both exogenous and endogenous antigens, and forms the basis for many diseases. Pathology Classification There are four types of hypersensitivity reactions, each mediated by a different mechanism 1-4: type 1 hypersensitivity: immed...

Immunity

The human body regularly encounters harmful micro-organisms, and because of this it has developed a system of defences to help identify and eliminate infective pathogens in the body, known as the immune system. Humans have two types of immunity: innate immunity and acquired immunity. innate im...

Immunohistochemistry

Immunohistochemistry is a method of assessing histology with the use of antibodies to specific antigens. It is complementary to the older technique of chemical staining of tissues but is often combined with a counter-stain for context (e.g. haematoxylin to stain cell nuclei blue). The process ...

Inflammation

Inflammation is a response to a noxious stimuli which can be either be acute or chronic. The cardinal signs of inflammation include: heat redness swelling pain loss of tissue function Sub types Acute Inflammation Acute inflammation occurs within the first few hours after an injury. In ...

Intracranial arteries

Intracranial arteries have unique structure when compared to extracranial vessels of similar size: see general histology of blood vessels entry. Proximal larger arteries The proximal arteries, arising from the internal carotid and vertebral arteries have differing distribution of elastic fiber...

Iron

Iron (chemical symbol Fe) is one of the trace elements that is essential for normal human health due to its central importance in the structure and function of hemoglobin and the cytochromes. Chemistry Basic chemistry Iron is a transition metal with atomic number 26 and an atomic weight of 55...

Isocitrate dehydrogenase

Isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) gene mutations are increasingly being recognised as key genetic prognostic markers for diffuse gliomas, and have been included in a recent (2016) update of diffuse astrocytomas in the WHO classification of brain tumors 7. Somatic mutations of IDH result in enchondr...

John Cunningham virus

John Cunningham virus (but universally called the JC virus) is a ubiquitous double-stranded DNA virus of the polyomaviridae family 1. It is the aetiological agent of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). Cases of cerebellar neuronal involvement (JC virus granule cell neuronopathy) as...

Kikuchi level

The Kikuchi level is a histopathological term used for describing the degree of infiltration of a sessile early invasive colorectal cancer1. Preoperative assessment of the level of invasion using this classification may decrease the incidence of unnecessary surgery for sessile polyps. Levels o...

Lamellated (term)

The term lamellated (or laminated) is a radiopathological term used to describe the layered appearance of many calculi, including those of the renal tract, the salivary glands, and the biliary tree. The internal structure of these calculi has been likened to that of an onion with multiple concen...

Langerhans cell

Langerhans cells are dendritic cells of monocyte-macrophage lineage, containing large granules called Birbeck granules. They are normally found in epithelial surfaces, lymph nodes and other organs, and can also be found elsewhere, particularly in association with Langerhans cell histiocytosis. ...

Lead

Lead (chemical symbol Pb) is a toxic metallic element with no known biological function in humans. Basic chemistry Lead is one of the post-transition metals with the atomic number 82 and atomic weight 207.2 g/mol. It is greyish in color and is pliable, poorly electrically-conducting with a hig...

Lipase

Lipase, more specifically pancreatic lipase, is an enzyme produced in the pancreas and is responsible for the digestion of fat molecules. It may be raised (hyperlipasaemia) in numerous pancreatic, hepatobiliary and other diseases but is most commonly associated with acute pancreatitis. Physiolo...

Lipohyalinosis

Lipohyalinosis is a disease affecting the small cerebral arteries associated with lacunar infarction and deep white matter changes related to small vessel chronic ischemia. Pathology The histopathological landmarks of lipohyalinosis are irregular fibrosis and hyaline of small cerebral arteries...

Liquefactive necrosis

Liquefactive necrosis is a form of necrosis where there is transformation of the tissue into a liquid viscous mass. Pathology In liquefactive necrosis, the affected cell is completely digested by hydrolytic enzymes leading to a soft, circumscribed lesion which can consist of fluid with remains...

Lymphangiosarcoma

Lymphangiosarcomas are rare malignant soft tissue neoplasms represent a vascular tumor (angiosarcoma) that occurs in patients with chronic lymphoedema. Epidemiology It affects females more than males, as it is commonly associated with post-mastectomy lymphoedema. Clinical presentation Chron...

Macroamylasaemia

Macroamylasaemia is the presence of serum amylase of a large molecular size, seen in both otherwise healthy individuals, and also in various diseases. Amylase seems to be able to self-polymerise and/or form complexes with other blood proteins, e.g. immunoglobulins. Epidemiology Macroamylasaemi...

Macrolipasaemia

Macrolipasaemia is the presence of serum lipase of a large molecular size, seen occasionally in otherwise healthy individuals, but more commonly in various diseases. Lipase is able to self-polymerise and/or form complexes with other blood proteins e.g. immunoglobulins. Epidemiology Epidemiolog...

Macromolecular complex

Macromolecular complexes include both macrohormones and macroenzymes, which consist of hormones and enzymes respectively covalently bound to carrier molecules, e.g. immunoglobulins, or occasionally the molecule may self-polymerise. Their primary importance lies in their ability to produce an art...

Malignant transformation

Malignant transformation is the term given to the process whereby either normal, metaplastic, or benign neoplastic tissue, becomes a cancer. The process usually occurs in a series of steps and the affected tissue gradually accumulates the genetic mutations that express a malignant phenotype. The...

Manganese

Manganese (chemical symbol Mn) is one of the trace elements. It has an important biological role in the synthetic pathway for mucopolysaccharides, and it also is a cofactor for several enzymes. Chemistry Basic chemistry Manganese has the atomic number 25 with an atomic weight of 54.94 g/mol. ...

MAPK pathway

The MAPK pathway (mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway) also known as the RAS/MAPK pathway is an oncogenic pathway and is most commonly involved in human cancers. It consists of a membrane receptor tyrosine kinase which when bound to by a growth factor results in activation of the signal t...

Metaplasia

Metaplasia is a general pathology term that refers to process when one cell type is replaced by another. It usually occurs in the context of a changed cellular environment to which the new cell type is better adapted 1. Examples include 2-5: Barrett esophagus: normal squamous epithelium replace...

Microglia

Microglia is one of the four types of glial cell and are the central nervous system equivalent of monocyte-macrophage system 1,2. During health, they are essentially inactive with small cell bodies and numerous processes extending throughout the local parenchyma 1,2. When presented a condition w...

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