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Hepatocellular carcinoma

Changed by Mohammad Taghi Niknejad, 7 Oct 2022
Back to revision history
Disclosures - updated 16 Jul 2022: Nothing to disclose

Updates to Article Attributes

Body was changed:

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary malignancy of the liver. It is strongly associated with cirrhosis, from both alcohol and viral aetiologies. Hepatocellular carcinomas constitute approximately 5% of all cancers partly due to the high endemic rates of hepatitis B infection 1.

Epidemiology

Hepatocellular carcinoma is the fifth most common cancer in the world and is the third most common cause of cancer-related death (after lung and stomach cancer). The incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma is rising, largely attributable to a rise in hepatitis C infection 2.

The highest prevalence occurs in Asia, in regions where chronic hepatitis B infection is endemic, and this accounts for >80% of hepatocellular carcinoma cases worldwide. In Western countries, the rate of hepatitis B infection is lower and alcohol accounts for the majority of cases.

Hepatocellular carcinoma is typically diagnosed in late middle-aged or elderly adults (average 65 years) and is more common in males (75% of cases) 7. In regions where chronic hepatitis B infection is endemic, young adults aged 20 to 40 (who had contracted the virus via maternal-fetal transmission) have the highest risk of developing hepatocellular carcinoma 30.

Hepatocellular carcinoma also occurs in the paediatric population, and is the second most common paediatric primary liver tumour after hepatoblastoma.

Fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinoma is a distinct variant of hepatocellular carcinoma not associated with cirrhosis and has different demographics and risk factors.

Risk factors

Risk factors include 1:

Clinical presentation

The presentation is variable and, in affluent nations, is often found in the setting of screening programs for patients with known risk factors 8. Otherwise, presentation may include:

Pathology

The origin of hepatocellular carcinomas is believed to be related to repeated cycles of necrosis and regeneration, irrespective of the cause. Additionally, the genomes of HBV and HCV contain genetic material that may predispose cells to accumulate mutations or disrupts growth control, thus allowing for a second mechanism by which infection with these agents predisposes to hepatocellular carcinoma 1.

Macroscopic appearance

On gross pathology, hepatocellular carcinomas typically appear as pale masses within the liver and may be unifocal, multifocal or diffusely infiltrative at the time of presentation.

The macroscopic growth of hepatocellular carcinoma is usually categorised into three subtypes: nodular, massive and infiltrative. Each has different radiological features, which are detailed below 9. The infiltrative subtype is characterised by a growth of multiple tiny nodules throughout the entire liver or an entire liver segment.

Microscopic appearance

Microscopically they range from well-differentiated to undifferentiated.

Markers

Radiographic features

Hepatocellular carcinomas can have a variety of appearances:

  • massive (focal)
    • large mass
    • may have necrosis, fat and /or calcification
  • nodular (multifocal)
    • multiple masses of variable attenuation
    • may also have central necrosis
  • infiltrative (diffuse) 10
    • may be difficult to distinguish from associated cirrhosis: also called cirrhotomimetic-type hepatocellular carcinoma or cirrhosis-like hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma receives most of its blood supply from branches of the hepatic artery, accounting for its characteristic enhancement pattern: early arterial enhancement with early "washout." Hence, small foci of hepatocellular carcinoma may be seen within a regenerative liver nodule as foci of arterial enhancement (nodule-in-nodule appearance) 11.

Hepatocellular carcinoma uncommonly demonstrates a central scar similar to focal nodular hyperplasia but may be differentiated by the absence of delayed contrast enhancement of the scar (as seen in focal nodular hyperplasia).

Rim enhancement on delayed post-contrast images causing a capsule-appearance is considered relatively specific for hepatocellular carcinoma (see case 4). 

Additionally, these tumours have the propensity to invade vascular structures, most commonly the portal vein, but also the hepatic veins, IVC, and right atrium. One should remember that a large number of patients will have concomitant cirrhosis, and thus also be at risk for bland portal vein thrombosis from synthetic dysfunction of clotting factors.

Ultrasound

Variable appearance depending on the individual lesion, size, and echogenicity of background liver. Typically:

  • small focal hepatocellular carcinoma appears hypoechoic compared with normal liver
  • larger lesions are heterogeneous due to fibrosis, fatty change, necrosis and calcification 12
  • a peripheral halo of hypoechogenicity may be seen with focal fatty sparing (see the discussion below on the CT session)
  • diffuse hepatocellular carcinoma may be difficult to identify or distinguish from background cirrhosis
  • contrast-enhanced ultrasound 13
    • arterial phase
      • arterial enhancement from neovascularity
    • portal venous phase
      • decreased echogenicity relative to background liver ("washout")
      • tumour thrombus may be visible
    • variants have been described with arterial phase hypovascularity with no enhancement or arterial enhancement with no "washout"
CT

Several patterns can be seen, depending on the subtype of hepatocellular carcinoma. Enhancement pattern is the key to the correct assessment of hepatocellular carcinomas.

Usually, the mass enhances vividly during late arterial (~35 seconds) and then washes out rapidly, becoming indistinct or hypoattenuating in the portal venous phase, compared to the rest of the liver.

Additionally, they may be associated with a wedge-shaped perfusion abnormality due to arterioportal shunts (APS), and this, in turn, can result in a focal fatty change in the normal liver or focal fatty sparing in the diffusely fatty liver 14. A halo of focal fatty sparing may also be seen around a hepatocellular carcinoma in an otherwise fatty liver 15.

Portal vein tumour thrombus can be distinguished from bland thrombus by demonstrating enhancement.

MRI

When seen in the setting of cirrhosis, small hepatocellular carcinomas need to be distinguished from regenerative and dysplastic nodules 16.

In general, MRI signal is:

  • T1
    • variable
    • iso- or hypointense cf. surrounding liver 17
    • hyperintensity may be due to
      • intratumoural fat 3
      • decreased intensity in the surrounding liver
  • T1 C+ (Gd)
    • enhancement is usually arterial ("hypervascularity")
    • rapid "washout", becoming hypointense to the remainder of the liver (96% specific) 3
      • this is because the supply to hepatocellular carcinoma is predominantly from the hepatic artery rather than the portal vein
    • rim enhancement may persist ("capsule")
    • an imaging classification system (LI-RADS) has been developed to stratify lesions
  • T1 C+ (Eovist/Primovist)
    • similar to assessment with extracellular gadolinium, but evaluation of the hepatobiliary phase requires care
      • arterial hyperenhancement with washout assessed on the portal venous phase
      • washout on transitional phase (3 minutes delayed) is less reliable (see: Eovist and LI-RADS)
  • T2: variable, typically moderately hyperintense
  • C+ post-SPIO (iron oxide): increases sensitivity in diagnosing small hepatocellular carcinomas
  • DWI: intratumoural high signal; increases sensitivity and specificity
Angiography (DSA)
  • hypervascular tumour
  • threads and streaks pattern: sign of tumour thrombus in the portal vein

Treatment and prognosis

The typical TNM staging system seen in most other epithelial cancers is not as prognostically useful for stratification of patients with hepatic cancers.

There are several substitute staging systems used in guiding therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma (see hepatocellular carcinoma staging)18. The LI-RADS imaging classification system is also used to stratify lesions in an at-risk liver.

If the lesion is small then resection is possible (partial hepatectomy) and may result in remission. The remarkable ability of the liver to regenerate means that up to two-thirds of the liver can be resected 19.

Liver transplantation is also a curative option. To be suitable for liver transplantation it is agreed that certain criteria should be met (see Milan criteria).

If neither of these options are possible, then a variety of options exist including chemotherapy, transarterial chemoembolisation (TACE), transarterial radioembolisation (TARE), thermal ablation (RFA, cryoablation, or microwave ablation), chemical ablation and selective internal radiation therapy (SIRT) 20-22.

If a tumour is resectable, then 5-year survival is ~45% (range 37-56%) 23.

Metastasis occurs in the final stages of disease (IVa) and carries a poor prognosis 24,25. The most frequently involved sites are the lung, adrenal glands, lymph nodes, and bone.

Differential diagnosis

General imaging differential considerations include:

  • -<p><strong>Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)</strong> is the most common primary <a href="/articles/liver-tumours">malignancy of the liver</a>. It is strongly associated with <a href="/articles/cirrhosis">cirrhosis</a>, from both alcohol and viral aetiologies. Hepatocellular carcinomas constitute approximately 5% of all cancers partly due to the high endemic rates of <a href="/articles/hepatitis-b-virus-1">hepatitis B</a> infection <sup>1</sup>.</p><h4>Epidemiology</h4><p>Hepatocellular carcinoma is the fifth most common cancer in the world and is the third most common cause of cancer-related death (after lung and stomach cancer). The incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma is rising, largely attributable to a rise in <a href="/articles/hepatitis-c-virus">hepatitis C</a> infection <sup>2</sup>.</p><p>The highest prevalence occurs in Asia, in regions where chronic <a href="/articles/hepatitis-b-virus-1">hepatitis B</a> infection is endemic, and this accounts for &gt;80% of hepatocellular carcinoma cases worldwide. In Western countries, the rate of hepatitis B infection is lower and alcohol accounts for the majority of cases.</p><p>Hepatocellular carcinoma is typically diagnosed in late middle-aged or elderly adults (average 65 years) and is more common in males (75% of cases) <sup>7</sup>. In regions where chronic hepatitis B infection is endemic, young adults aged 20 to 40 (who had contracted the virus via maternal-fetal transmission) have the highest risk of developing hepatocellular carcinoma <sup>30</sup>.</p><p>Hepatocellular carcinoma also occurs in the paediatric population, and is the second most common paediatric primary liver tumour after <a href="/articles/hepatoblastoma">hepatoblastoma</a>.</p><p><a href="/articles/fibrolamellar-hepatocellular-carcinoma">Fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinoma</a> is a distinct variant of hepatocellular carcinoma not associated with cirrhosis and has different demographics and risk factors.</p><h5>Risk factors</h5><p>Risk factors include <sup>1</sup>:</p><ul>
  • -<li>
  • -<a href="/articles/hepatitis-b-virus-1">hepatitis B (HBV)</a> infection: 10% 5-year cumulative risk <sup>3</sup>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>
  • -<a href="/articles/hepatitis-c-virus">hepatitis C (HCV)</a> infection: 30% 5-year cumulative risk</li>
  • -<li>alcoholism: 8% 5-year cumulative risk</li>
  • -<li>
  • -<a href="/articles/primary-biliary-cholangitis">biliary cholangitis</a>: 5% 5-year cumulative risk</li>
  • -<li>food toxins, e.g. aflatoxins</li>
  • -<li>congenital <a href="/articles/biliary-atresia">biliary atresia</a>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>inborn errors of metabolism<ul>
  • -<li>
  • -<a href="/articles/haemochromatosis">haemochromatosis</a>: ~20% 5-year cumulative risk</li>
  • -<li><a href="/articles/alpha-1-antitrypsin-deficiency-4">alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency</a></li>
  • -<li><a href="/articles/glycogen-storage-disease-type-i">type 1 glycogen storage disease</a></li>
  • -<li><a href="/articles/wilsons-disease">Wilson disease</a></li>
  • -<li>
  • -<a href="/articles/tyrosinaemia">tyrosinaemia</a> type I <sup>4</sup>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>
  • -<a href="/articles/porphyria-1">porphyrias</a> <sup>5</sup>
  • -</li>
  • -</ul>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>
  • -<a href="/articles/obesity">obesity</a> and <a href="/articles/diabetes-mellitus">diabetes mellitus</a> <sup>6</sup>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>
  • -<a href="/articles/chronic-cholestatic-syndromes">chronic cholestatic syndromes </a><sup>6</sup>
  • -</li>
  • -</ul><h4>Clinical presentation</h4><p>The presentation is variable and, in affluent nations, is often found in the setting of <a href="/articles/hepatocellular-carcinoma-surveillance">screening programs</a> for patients with known risk factors <sup>8</sup>. Otherwise, presentation may include:</p><ul>
  • -<li>constitutional symptoms</li>
  • -<li><a href="/articles/jaundice">jaundice</a></li>
  • -<li>
  • -<a href="/articles/portal-hypertension">portal hypertension</a> from the invasion of the portal vein</li>
  • -<li>
  • -<a href="/articles/hepatomegaly">hepatomegaly</a>/mass</li>
  • -<li>haemorrhage from tumour</li>
  • -</ul><h4>Pathology</h4><p>The origin of hepatocellular carcinomas is believed to be related to repeated cycles of necrosis and regeneration, irrespective of the cause. Additionally, the genomes of HBV and HCV contain genetic material that may predispose cells to accumulate mutations or disrupts growth control, thus allowing for a second mechanism by which infection with these agents predisposes to hepatocellular carcinoma <sup>1</sup>.</p><h5>Macroscopic appearance</h5><p>On gross pathology, hepatocellular carcinomas typically appear as pale masses within the liver and may be unifocal, multifocal or diffusely infiltrative at the time of presentation.</p><p>The macroscopic growth of hepatocellular carcinoma is usually categorised into three subtypes: nodular, massive and <a href="/articles/infiltrative-hepatocellular-carcinoma-1">infiltrative</a>. Each has different radiological features, which are detailed below <sup>9</sup>. The infiltrative subtype is characterised by a growth of multiple tiny nodules throughout the entire liver or an entire liver segment.</p><h5>Microscopic appearance</h5><p>Microscopically they range from well-differentiated to undifferentiated.</p><h5>Markers</h5><ul><li>
  • -<a href="/articles/alpha-fetoprotein-1">alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)</a> levels are elevated in 50-75% of cases <sup>2</sup>
  • -</li></ul><h4>Radiographic features</h4><p>Hepatocellular carcinomas can have a variety of appearances:</p><ul>
  • -<li>massive (focal)<ul>
  • -<li>large mass</li>
  • -<li>may have necrosis, fat and /or calcification</li>
  • -</ul>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>nodular (multifocal)<ul>
  • -<li>multiple masses of variable attenuation</li>
  • -<li>may also have central necrosis</li>
  • -</ul>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>
  • -<a href="/articles/infiltrative-hepatocellular-carcinoma-1">infiltrative</a> (diffuse) <sup>10</sup><ul><li>may be difficult to distinguish from associated cirrhosis: also called cirrhotomimetic-type hepatocellular carcinoma or cirrhosis-like hepatocellular carcinoma</li></ul>
  • -</li>
  • -</ul><p>Hepatocellular carcinoma receives most of its blood supply from branches of the hepatic artery, accounting for its characteristic enhancement pattern: early arterial enhancement with early "washout." Hence, small foci of hepatocellular carcinoma may be seen within a <a href="/articles/regenerative-liver-nodule">regenerative liver nodule</a> as foci of arterial enhancement (<a href="/articles/nodule-in-nodule-appearance-liver-2">nodule-in-nodule appearance</a>) <sup>11</sup>.</p><p>Hepatocellular carcinoma uncommonly demonstrates a central scar similar to <a href="/articles/focal-nodular-hyperplasia">focal nodular hyperplasia</a> but may be differentiated by the absence of delayed contrast enhancement of the scar (as seen in focal nodular hyperplasia).</p><p>Rim enhancement on delayed post-contrast images causing a capsule-appearance is considered relatively specific for hepatocellular carcinoma (see case 4). </p><p>Additionally, these tumours have the propensity to invade vascular structures, most commonly the portal vein, but also the hepatic veins, IVC, and right atrium. One should remember that a large number of patients will have concomitant <a href="/articles/cirrhosis">cirrhosis</a>, and thus also be at risk for bland <a href="/articles/portal-vein-thrombosis">portal vein thrombosis</a> from synthetic dysfunction of clotting factors.</p><h5>Ultrasound</h5><p>Variable appearance depending on the individual lesion, size, and echogenicity of background liver. Typically:</p><ul>
  • -<li>small focal hepatocellular carcinoma appears hypoechoic compared with normal liver</li>
  • -<li>larger lesions are heterogeneous due to fibrosis, fatty change, necrosis and calcification <sup>12</sup>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>a peripheral halo of hypoechogenicity may be seen with focal fatty sparing (see the discussion below on the CT session)</li>
  • -<li>diffuse hepatocellular carcinoma may be difficult to identify or distinguish from background cirrhosis</li>
  • -<li>contrast-enhanced ultrasound <sup>13</sup><ul>
  • -<li>arterial phase<ul><li>arterial enhancement from neovascularity</li></ul>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>portal venous phase<ul>
  • -<li>decreased echogenicity relative to background liver ("washout")</li>
  • -<li>tumour thrombus may be visible</li>
  • -</ul>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>variants have been described with arterial phase hypovascularity with no enhancement or arterial enhancement with no "washout"</li>
  • -</ul>
  • -</li>
  • -</ul><h5>CT</h5><p>Several patterns can be seen, depending on the subtype of hepatocellular carcinoma. Enhancement pattern is the key to the correct assessment of hepatocellular carcinomas.</p><p>Usually, the mass enhances vividly during late arterial (~35 seconds) and then washes out rapidly, becoming indistinct or hypoattenuating in the portal venous phase, compared to the rest of the liver.</p><p>Additionally, they may be associated with a wedge-shaped perfusion abnormality due to <a href="/articles/intrahepatic-arterioportal-shunt">arterioportal shunts</a> (APS), and this, in turn, can result in a <a href="/articles/focal-hepatic-steatosis">focal fatty change</a> in the normal liver or focal fatty sparing in the diffusely fatty liver <sup>14</sup>. A halo of <a href="/articles/focal-fatty-sparing-of-the-liver">focal fatty sparing</a> may also be seen around a hepatocellular carcinoma in an otherwise <a href="/articles/fatty-liver">fatty liver</a> <sup>15</sup>.</p><p>Portal vein tumour thrombus can be distinguished from bland thrombus by demonstrating enhancement.</p><h5>MRI</h5><p>When seen in the setting of <a href="/articles/cirrhosis">cirrhosis</a>, small hepatocellular carcinomas need to be distinguished from regenerative and dysplastic nodules <sup>16</sup>.</p><p>In general, MRI signal is:</p><ul>
  • -<li>
  • -<strong>T1</strong><ul>
  • -<li>variable</li>
  • -<li>iso- or hypointense cf. surrounding liver <sup>17</sup>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>hyperintensity may be due to<ul>
  • -<li>intratumoural fat <sup>3</sup>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>decreased intensity in the surrounding liver</li>
  • -</ul>
  • -</li>
  • -</ul>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>
  • -<strong>T1 C+ (Gd)</strong><ul>
  • -<li>enhancement is usually arterial ("hypervascularity")</li>
  • -<li>rapid "washout", becoming hypointense to the remainder of the liver (96% specific) <sup>3</sup><ul><li>this is because the supply to hepatocellular carcinoma is predominantly from the hepatic artery rather than the portal vein</li></ul>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>rim enhancement may persist ("capsule")</li>
  • -<li>an imaging classification system (<a href="/articles/li-rads">LI-RADS</a>) has been developed to stratify lesions</li>
  • -</ul>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>
  • -<strong>T1 C+ (Eovist/Primovist)</strong><ul><li>similar to assessment with extracellular gadolinium, but evaluation of the hepatobiliary phase requires care<ul>
  • -<li>arterial hyperenhancement with washout assessed on the portal venous phase</li>
  • -<li>washout on transitional phase (3 minutes delayed) is less reliable (see: <a href="/articles/hepatobiliary-contrast-agents-and-li-rads">Eovist and LI-RADS</a>)</li>
  • -</ul>
  • -</li></ul>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>
  • -<strong>T2:</strong> variable, typically moderately hyperintense</li>
  • -<li>
  • -<strong>C+ post-SPIO (iron oxide):</strong> increases sensitivity in diagnosing small hepatocellular carcinomas</li>
  • -<li>
  • -<strong>DWI: </strong>intratumoural high signal; increases sensitivity and specificity</li>
  • -</ul><h5>Angiography (DSA)</h5><ul>
  • -<li>hypervascular tumour</li>
  • -<li>threads and streaks pattern: sign of tumour thrombus in the portal vein</li>
  • -</ul><h4>Treatment and prognosis</h4><p>The typical TNM staging system seen in most other epithelial cancers is not as prognostically useful for stratification of patients with hepatic cancers.</p><p>There are several substitute staging systems used in guiding therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma (see <a href="/articles/hepatocellular-carcinoma-staging">hepatocellular carcinoma staging</a>)<sup>18</sup>. The <a href="/articles/li-rads">LI-RADS</a> imaging classification system is also used to stratify lesions in an at-risk liver.</p><p>If the lesion is small then resection is possible (partial hepatectomy) and may result in remission. The remarkable ability of the liver to regenerate means that up to two-thirds of the liver can be resected <sup>19</sup>.</p><p>Liver transplantation is also a curative option. To be suitable for liver transplantation it is agreed that certain criteria should be met (see <a href="/articles/milan-criteria-in-liver-tranplantation-1">Milan criteria</a>).</p><p>If neither of these options are possible, then a variety of options exist including chemotherapy, <a href="/articles/transcatheter-arterial-chemoembolisation">transarterial chemoembolisation (TACE)</a>, <a href="/articles/transarterial-radioembolization">transarterial radioembolisation (TARE)</a>, thermal ablation (<a href="/articles/radiofrequency-ablation">RFA</a>, cryoablation, or microwave ablation), <a href="/articles/chemical-ablation">chemical ablation</a> and <a href="/articles/selective-internal-radiation-therapy-sirt">selective internal radiation therapy (SIRT)</a> <sup>20-22</sup>.</p><ul>
  • -<li><a href="/articles/post-tace-assessment-of-hepatocellular-carcinoma">Post-TACE assessment of hepatocellular carcinoma</a></li>
  • -<li><a href="/articles/post-tare-assessment-of-hepatocellular-carcinoma">Post-TARE assessment of hepatocellular carcinoma</a></li>
  • -</ul><p>If a tumour is resectable, then 5-year survival is ~45% (range 37-56%) <sup>23</sup>.</p><p>Metastasis occurs in the final stages of disease (IVa) and carries a poor prognosis <sup>24,25</sup>. The most frequently involved sites are the lung, adrenal glands, lymph nodes, and bone.</p><h4>Differential diagnosis</h4><p>General imaging differential considerations include:</p><ul>
  • -<li>hypervascular <a href="/articles/hepatic-metastases">hepatic metastases</a> <ul>
  • -<li>metastases to a cirrhotic liver are rare, often due to primary endocrine tumour</li>
  • -<li>less venous invasion</li>
  • -</ul>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>
  • -<a href="/articles/focal-nodular-hyperplasia">focal nodular hyperplasia (FNH)</a><ul>
  • -<li>no vascular invasion or neovascularisation</li>
  • -<li>may have non-enhancement "halo" around mass or in central scar</li>
  • -<li>early arterial <a href="/articles/gadoxetate-disodium">Eovist</a> enhancement persists into delayed phases</li>
  • -<li>Tc-99m sulphur colloid 80% positive</li>
  • -</ul>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>
  • -<a href="/articles/hepatic-adenoma">hepatic adenoma</a><ul><li>different demographics and risk factors</li></ul>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>intrahepatic <a href="/articles/cholangiocarcinoma">cholangiocarcinoma</a><ul>
  • -<li>peripheral location</li>
  • -<li>biliary obstruction</li>
  • -<li>delayed enhancement</li>
  • -</ul>
  • -</li>
  • -<li><a href="/articles/transient-hepatic-attenuation-differences">THADs</a></li>
  • -<li>
  • -<a href="/articles/primary-hepatic-lymphoma">primary hepatic lymphoma</a> <sup>26</sup>
  • -</li>
  • -<li>hepatic <a href="/articles/tuberculoma">tuberculoma</a><sup> 27</sup>
  • -</li>
  • +<p><strong>Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)</strong> is the most common primary <a href="/articles/liver-tumours">malignancy of the liver</a>. It is strongly associated with <a href="/articles/cirrhosis">cirrhosis</a>, from both alcohol and viral aetiologies. Hepatocellular carcinomas constitute approximately 5% of all cancers partly due to the high endemic rates of <a href="/articles/hepatitis-b-virus-1">hepatitis B</a> infection <sup>1</sup>.</p><h4>Epidemiology</h4><p>Hepatocellular carcinoma is the fifth most common cancer in the world and is the third most common cause of cancer-related death (after lung and stomach cancer). The incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma is rising, largely attributable to a rise in <a href="/articles/hepatitis-c-virus">hepatitis C</a> infection <sup>2</sup>.</p><p>The highest prevalence occurs in Asia, in regions where chronic <a href="/articles/hepatitis-b-virus-1">hepatitis B</a> infection is endemic, and this accounts for &gt;80% of hepatocellular carcinoma cases worldwide. In Western countries, the rate of hepatitis B infection is lower and alcohol accounts for the majority of cases.</p><p>Hepatocellular carcinoma is typically diagnosed in late middle-aged or elderly adults (average 65 years) and is more common in males (75% of cases) <sup>7</sup>. In regions where chronic hepatitis B infection is endemic, young adults aged 20 to 40 (who had contracted the virus via maternal-fetal transmission) have the highest risk of developing hepatocellular carcinoma <sup>30</sup>.</p><p>Hepatocellular carcinoma also occurs in the paediatric population, and is the second most common paediatric primary liver tumour after <a href="/articles/hepatoblastoma">hepatoblastoma</a>.</p><p><a href="/articles/fibrolamellar-hepatocellular-carcinoma">Fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinoma</a> is a distinct variant of hepatocellular carcinoma not associated with cirrhosis and has different demographics and risk factors.</p><h5>Risk factors</h5><p>Risk factors include <sup>1</sup>:</p><ul>
  • +<li>
  • +<a href="/articles/hepatitis-b-virus-1">hepatitis B (HBV)</a> infection: 10% 5-year cumulative risk <sup>3</sup>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>
  • +<a href="/articles/hepatitis-c-virus">hepatitis C (HCV)</a> infection: 30% 5-year cumulative risk</li>
  • +<li>alcoholism: 8% 5-year cumulative risk</li>
  • +<li>
  • +<a href="/articles/primary-biliary-cholangitis">biliary cholangitis</a>: 5% 5-year cumulative risk</li>
  • +<li>food toxins, e.g. aflatoxins</li>
  • +<li>congenital <a href="/articles/biliary-atresia">biliary atresia</a>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>inborn errors of metabolism<ul>
  • +<li>
  • +<a href="/articles/haemochromatosis">haemochromatosis</a>: ~20% 5-year cumulative risk</li>
  • +<li><a href="/articles/alpha-1-antitrypsin-deficiency-4">alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency</a></li>
  • +<li><a href="/articles/glycogen-storage-disease-type-i">type 1 glycogen storage disease</a></li>
  • +<li><a href="/articles/wilsons-disease">Wilson disease</a></li>
  • +<li>
  • +<a href="/articles/tyrosinaemia">tyrosinaemia</a> type I <sup>4</sup>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>
  • +<a href="/articles/porphyria-1">porphyrias</a> <sup>5</sup>
  • +</li>
  • +</ul>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>
  • +<a href="/articles/obesity">obesity</a> and <a href="/articles/diabetes-mellitus">diabetes mellitus</a> <sup>6</sup>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>
  • +<a href="/articles/chronic-cholestatic-syndromes">chronic cholestatic syndromes </a><sup>6</sup>
  • +</li>
  • +</ul><h4>Clinical presentation</h4><p>The presentation is variable and, in affluent nations, is often found in the setting of <a href="/articles/hepatocellular-carcinoma-surveillance">screening programs</a> for patients with known risk factors <sup>8</sup>. Otherwise, presentation may include:</p><ul>
  • +<li>constitutional symptoms</li>
  • +<li><a href="/articles/jaundice">jaundice</a></li>
  • +<li>
  • +<a href="/articles/portal-hypertension">portal hypertension</a> from the invasion of the portal vein</li>
  • +<li>
  • +<a href="/articles/hepatomegaly">hepatomegaly</a>/mass</li>
  • +<li>haemorrhage from tumour</li>
  • +</ul><h4>Pathology</h4><p>The origin of hepatocellular carcinomas is believed to be related to repeated cycles of necrosis and regeneration, irrespective of the cause. Additionally, the genomes of HBV and HCV contain genetic material that may predispose cells to accumulate mutations or disrupts growth control, thus allowing for a second mechanism by which infection with these agents predisposes to hepatocellular carcinoma <sup>1</sup>.</p><h5>Macroscopic appearance</h5><p>On gross pathology, hepatocellular carcinomas typically appear as pale masses within the liver and may be unifocal, multifocal or diffusely infiltrative at the time of presentation.</p><p>The macroscopic growth of hepatocellular carcinoma is usually categorised into three subtypes: nodular, massive and <a href="/articles/infiltrative-hepatocellular-carcinoma-1">infiltrative</a>. Each has different radiological features, which are detailed below <sup>9</sup>. The infiltrative subtype is characterised by a growth of multiple tiny nodules throughout the entire liver or an entire liver segment.</p><h5>Microscopic appearance</h5><p>Microscopically they range from well-differentiated to undifferentiated.</p><h5>Markers</h5><ul><li>
  • +<a href="/articles/alpha-fetoprotein-1">alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)</a> levels are elevated in 50-75% of cases <sup>2</sup>
  • +</li></ul><h4>Radiographic features</h4><p>Hepatocellular carcinomas can have a variety of appearances:</p><ul>
  • +<li>massive (focal)<ul>
  • +<li>large mass</li>
  • +<li>may have necrosis, fat and /or calcification</li>
  • +</ul>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>nodular (multifocal)<ul>
  • +<li>multiple masses of variable attenuation</li>
  • +<li>may also have central necrosis</li>
  • +</ul>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>
  • +<a href="/articles/infiltrative-hepatocellular-carcinoma-1">infiltrative</a> (diffuse) <sup>10</sup><ul><li>may be difficult to distinguish from associated cirrhosis: also called cirrhotomimetic-type hepatocellular carcinoma or cirrhosis-like hepatocellular carcinoma</li></ul>
  • +</li>
  • +</ul><p>Hepatocellular carcinoma receives most of its blood supply from branches of the hepatic artery, accounting for its characteristic enhancement pattern: early arterial enhancement with early "washout." Hence, small foci of hepatocellular carcinoma may be seen within a <a href="/articles/regenerative-liver-nodule">regenerative liver nodule</a> as foci of arterial enhancement (<a href="/articles/nodule-in-nodule-appearance-liver-2">nodule-in-nodule appearance</a>) <sup>11</sup>.</p><p>Hepatocellular carcinoma uncommonly demonstrates a central scar similar to <a href="/articles/focal-nodular-hyperplasia">focal nodular hyperplasia</a> but may be differentiated by the absence of delayed contrast enhancement of the scar (as seen in focal nodular hyperplasia).</p><p>Rim enhancement on delayed post-contrast images causing a capsule-appearance is considered relatively specific for hepatocellular carcinoma (see case 4). </p><p>Additionally, these tumours have the propensity to invade vascular structures, most commonly the portal vein, but also the hepatic veins, IVC, and right atrium. One should remember that a large number of patients will have concomitant <a href="/articles/cirrhosis">cirrhosis</a>, and thus also be at risk for bland <a href="/articles/portal-vein-thrombosis">portal vein thrombosis</a> from synthetic dysfunction of clotting factors.</p><h5>Ultrasound</h5><p>Variable appearance depending on the individual lesion, size, and echogenicity of background liver. Typically:</p><ul>
  • +<li>small focal hepatocellular carcinoma appears hypoechoic compared with normal liver</li>
  • +<li>larger lesions are heterogeneous due to fibrosis, fatty change, necrosis and calcification <sup>12</sup>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>a peripheral halo of hypoechogenicity may be seen with focal fatty sparing (see the discussion below on the CT session)</li>
  • +<li>diffuse hepatocellular carcinoma may be difficult to identify or distinguish from background cirrhosis</li>
  • +<li>contrast-enhanced ultrasound <sup>13</sup><ul>
  • +<li>arterial phase<ul><li>arterial enhancement from neovascularity</li></ul>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>portal venous phase<ul>
  • +<li>decreased echogenicity relative to background liver ("washout")</li>
  • +<li>tumour thrombus may be visible</li>
  • +</ul>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>variants have been described with arterial phase hypovascularity with no enhancement or arterial enhancement with no "washout"</li>
  • +</ul>
  • +</li>
  • +</ul><h5>CT</h5><p>Several patterns can be seen, depending on the subtype of hepatocellular carcinoma. Enhancement pattern is the key to the correct assessment of hepatocellular carcinomas.</p><p>Usually, the mass enhances vividly during late arterial (~35 seconds) and then washes out rapidly, becoming indistinct or hypoattenuating in the portal venous phase, compared to the rest of the liver.</p><p>Additionally, they may be associated with a wedge-shaped perfusion abnormality due to <a href="/articles/intrahepatic-arterioportal-shunt">arterioportal shunts</a> (APS), and this, in turn, can result in a <a href="/articles/focal-hepatic-steatosis">focal fatty change</a> in the normal liver or focal fatty sparing in the diffusely fatty liver <sup>14</sup>. A halo of <a href="/articles/focal-fatty-sparing-of-the-liver">focal fatty sparing</a> may also be seen around a hepatocellular carcinoma in an otherwise <a href="/articles/fatty-liver">fatty liver</a> <sup>15</sup>.</p><p>Portal vein tumour thrombus can be distinguished from bland thrombus by demonstrating enhancement.</p><h5>MRI</h5><p>When seen in the setting of <a href="/articles/cirrhosis">cirrhosis</a>, small hepatocellular carcinomas need to be distinguished from regenerative and dysplastic nodules <sup>16</sup>.</p><p>In general, MRI signal is:</p><ul>
  • +<li>
  • +<strong>T1</strong><ul>
  • +<li>variable</li>
  • +<li>iso- or hypointense cf. surrounding liver <sup>17</sup>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>hyperintensity may be due to<ul>
  • +<li>intratumoural fat <sup>3</sup>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>decreased intensity in the surrounding liver</li>
  • +</ul>
  • +</li>
  • +</ul>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>
  • +<strong>T1 C+ (Gd)</strong><ul>
  • +<li>enhancement is usually arterial ("hypervascularity")</li>
  • +<li>rapid "washout", becoming hypointense to the remainder of the liver (96% specific) <sup>3</sup><ul><li>this is because the supply to hepatocellular carcinoma is predominantly from the hepatic artery rather than the portal vein</li></ul>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>rim enhancement may persist ("capsule")</li>
  • +<li>an imaging classification system (<a href="/articles/li-rads">LI-RADS</a>) has been developed to stratify lesions</li>
  • +</ul>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>
  • +<strong>T1 C+ (Eovist/Primovist)</strong><ul><li>similar to assessment with extracellular gadolinium, but evaluation of the hepatobiliary phase requires care<ul>
  • +<li>arterial hyperenhancement with washout assessed on the portal venous phase</li>
  • +<li>washout on transitional phase (3 minutes delayed) is less reliable (see: <a href="/articles/hepatobiliary-contrast-agents-and-li-rads">Eovist and LI-RADS</a>)</li>
  • +</ul>
  • +</li></ul>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>
  • +<strong>T2:</strong> variable, typically moderately hyperintense</li>
  • +<li>
  • +<strong>C+ post-SPIO (iron oxide):</strong> increases sensitivity in diagnosing small hepatocellular carcinomas</li>
  • +<li>
  • +<strong>DWI: </strong>intratumoural high signal; increases sensitivity and specificity</li>
  • +</ul><h5>Angiography (DSA)</h5><ul>
  • +<li>hypervascular tumour</li>
  • +<li>threads and streaks pattern: sign of tumour thrombus in the portal vein</li>
  • +</ul><h4>Treatment and prognosis</h4><p>The typical TNM staging system seen in most other epithelial cancers is not as prognostically useful for stratification of patients with hepatic cancers.</p><p>There are several substitute staging systems used in guiding therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma (see <a href="/articles/hepatocellular-carcinoma-staging">hepatocellular carcinoma staging</a>)<sup>18</sup>. The <a href="/articles/li-rads">LI-RADS</a> imaging classification system is also used to stratify lesions in an at-risk liver.</p><p>If the lesion is small then resection is possible (partial hepatectomy) and may result in remission. The remarkable ability of the liver to regenerate means that up to two-thirds of the liver can be resected <sup>19</sup>.</p><p>Liver transplantation is also a curative option. To be suitable for liver transplantation it is agreed that certain criteria should be met (see <a href="/articles/milan-criteria-in-liver-tranplantation-1">Milan criteria</a>).</p><p>If neither of these options are possible, then a variety of options exist including chemotherapy, <a href="/articles/transcatheter-arterial-chemoembolisation">transarterial chemoembolisation (TACE)</a>, <a href="/articles/transarterial-radioembolization">transarterial radioembolisation (TARE)</a>, thermal ablation (<a href="/articles/radiofrequency-ablation">RFA</a>, cryoablation, or microwave ablation), <a href="/articles/chemical-ablation">chemical ablation</a> and <a href="/articles/selective-internal-radiation-therapy-sirt">selective internal radiation therapy (SIRT)</a> <sup>20-22</sup>.</p><ul>
  • +<li><a href="/articles/post-tace-assessment-of-hepatocellular-carcinoma">Post-TACE assessment of hepatocellular carcinoma</a></li>
  • +<li><a href="/articles/post-tare-assessment-of-hepatocellular-carcinoma">Post-TARE assessment of hepatocellular carcinoma</a></li>
  • +</ul><p>If a tumour is resectable, then 5-year survival is ~45% (range 37-56%) <sup>23</sup>.</p><p>Metastasis occurs in the final stages of disease (IVa) and carries a poor prognosis <sup>24,25</sup>. The most frequently involved sites are the lung, adrenal glands, lymph nodes, and bone.</p><h4>Differential diagnosis</h4><p>General imaging differential considerations include:</p><ul>
  • +<li>hypervascular <a href="/articles/hepatic-metastases">hepatic metastases</a> <ul>
  • +<li>metastases to a cirrhotic liver are rare, often due to primary endocrine tumour</li>
  • +<li>less venous invasion</li>
  • +</ul>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>
  • +<a href="/articles/focal-nodular-hyperplasia">focal nodular hyperplasia (FNH)</a><ul>
  • +<li>no vascular invasion or neovascularisation</li>
  • +<li>may have non-enhancement "halo" around mass or in central scar</li>
  • +<li>early arterial <a href="/articles/gadoxetate-disodium">Eovist</a> enhancement persists into delayed phases</li>
  • +<li>Tc-99m sulphur colloid 80% positive</li>
  • +</ul>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>
  • +<a href="/articles/hepatic-adenoma">hepatic adenoma</a><ul><li>different demographics and risk factors</li></ul>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>intrahepatic <a href="/articles/cholangiocarcinoma">cholangiocarcinoma</a><ul>
  • +<li>peripheral location</li>
  • +<li>biliary obstruction</li>
  • +<li>delayed enhancement</li>
  • +</ul>
  • +</li>
  • +<li><a href="/articles/transient-hepatic-attenuation-differences">THADs</a></li>
  • +<li>
  • +<a href="/articles/primary-hepatic-lymphoma">primary hepatic lymphoma</a> <sup>26</sup>
  • +</li>
  • +<li>hepatic <a href="/articles/tuberculoma">tuberculoma</a><sup> 27</sup>
  • +</li>
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Image 43 CT (C+ arterial phase) ( create )

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